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CFI Notebook
CFI Notebook
CFI Notebook
notebook
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Table
of
Contents
Areas
of
Operation:
Single-Engine Land
I.
Fundamentals
of
Instructing
Task
A:
Human
Behavior
and
Effective
Communication
Task
B:
The
Learning
Process
Task
C:
The
Teaching
Process
Task
D:
Assessment
and
Critique
Task
E:
Instructor
Responsibilities
and
Professionalism
Task
F:
Techniques
of
Flight
Instruction
Task
G:
Risk
Management
II.
III.
Preflight
Preparation
Task
A:
Certificates
and
Documents
Task
B:
Weather
Information
Task
C:
Operation
of
Systems
Task
D:
Performance
and
Limitations
Task
E:
Airworthiness
Requirements
IV.
V.
Preflight
Procedures
Task
A:
Preflight
Inspection
Task
B:
Cockpit
Management
Task
C:
Engine
Starting
Task
D:
Taxiing
Landplane
Task
G:
Before
Takeoff
Check
VII.
VIII.
Fundamentals
of
Flight
Task
A:
Straight-and-Level
Flight
Task
B:
Level
Turns
Task
C:
Straight
Climbs
and
Climbing
Turns
Task
D:
Straight
Descents
and
Descending
Turns
IX.
Performance
Maneuvers
Task
A:
Steep
Turns
Task
B:
Steep
Spirals
Task
C:
Chandelles
Task
D:
Lazy
Eights
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
Emergency
Operations
Task
A:
Emergency
Approach
and
Landing
Task
B:
Systems
and
Equipment
Malfunctions
Task
C:
Emergency
Equipment
and
Survival
Gear
Task
D:
Emergency
Descent
XIV.
Postflight
Procedures
Task
A:
Postflight
Procedures
Emergency Operations
Task B: Engine Failure During Takeoff Before Vmc
Task C: Engine Failure After Lift-Off
Task D: Approach and Landing with an Inoperative Engine
XIV.
Multi-Engine Operations
Task A: Operation of Systems
Task B: Performance and Limitations
Task C: Flight Principles - Engine Inoperative
Task D: Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
Task E: Vmc Demonstration
Task F: Demonstration of the Effects of Various Airspeeds and Configurations
During Engine Inoperative Performance
Appendix
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PHAK Runway Incursion Avoidance
AC 61-65E Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors
AC 61-67C Stall and Spin Awareness Training
AC 61-98B Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review
AC 90-66A Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns
Appendix
2
Inoperative
Equipment
Flow
Chart
(FAR
91.213)
CFI
Q&A:
Privileges
and
Limitations
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations I
Fundamentals of Instructing
6
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10
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iii. Practice.
The
practice
level
builds
proficiency;
the
learner
tries
performing
a
skill
again
and
again.
iv. Habit.
This
level
is
reached
when
the
student
can
perform
the
skill
in
twice
the
time
it
takes
the
instructor.
6. Characteristics
of
learning.
a. Purposeful.
Students
learn
when
there
is
a
clear
purpose
or
goal.
b. Result
of
experience.
Students
learn
through
individual
experiences.
c. Active
Process.
To
learn,
students
must
actively
react
and
respond.
d. Multifaceted.
Verbal,
conceptual,
perceptual,
motor
skills,
emotional,
and
problem
solving;
sometimes
called
incidental
learning.
7. Acquiring
skill
knowledge.
a. Cognitive
stage.
Student
memorized
steps
to
perform
a
skill.
b. Associative
stage.
Student
practices
the
skill,
can
now
assess
and
make
changes
in
performance.
c. Automatic
response
stage.
Students
performance
is
rapid
and
smooth,
few
corrections,
has
developed
feel
for
the
skill.
i. Desire
to
learn.
A
student
with
desire
to
learn
will
learn
more
quickly.
ii. Evaluation
vs
critique.
Suggestions
are
more
valuable
than
a
grade
in
early
training.
iii. Application
of
skill.
Learn
the
skill
well,
apply
it
in
appropriate
situations.
iv. Duration
and
organization
of
a
lesson.
Adequate,
but
not
excessive
length
of
practice.
v. Pattern
of
progress.
Learning
curve
rapid
at
first,
then
plateaus
are
encountered.
vi. Physical
skills
involve
more
than
muscles.
Concepts
develop,
attitudes
are
changed.
vii. Patterns
to
follow.
Prepare
a
student
by
providing
a
clear,
step-by-step
example.
viii. Performance
of
the
skill.
Practice
makes
proficient,
coordinates
muscles
and
senses.
ix. Knowledge
of
results.
Keep
students
aware
of
progress,
whether
its
right
or
wrong.
8. Types
of
practice.
a. Deliberate.
Student
practices
specific
areas
for
improvement
and
receives
specific
feedback.
b. Blocked.
Practicing
the
same
skill
over
and
over,
until
it
is
automatic.
c. Random.
Mixing
up
the
skills
to
be
acquired
during
the
practice
session.
9. Scenario-based
training.
a. Practicing
realistic
scenarios
during
training
is
very
useful,
and
better
resembles
training
environment.
A
good
scenario
has
a
clear
set
of
objectives
and
is
tailored
to
the
student.
10. Errors.
a. Errors
are
impossible
to
eliminate
but
here
are
some
tactics
for
reducing
them:
i. Learning
and
practicing.
Higher
knowledge
and
skill
leads
to
lower
frequency
and
magnitude
of
error.
ii. Taking
time-dont
rush.
Performing
at
a
fast/unfamiliar
pace
increases
likelihood
of
errors.
iii. Checking
for
errors.
Actively
looking
for
errors,
such
as
preflight
checklists,
etc.
iv. Using
reminders-checklists,
heading
bugs,
altitude
alerts,
etc.
v. Developing
routines-use
standardized
procedures,
cockpit
flows,
etc,
vi. Raising
awareness.
Beware
of
out
of
the
ordinary
situations,
changing
conditions,
unfamiliar
airports,
etc.
11. Memory
and
forgetting.
a. Memory:
i. Sensory
register-receives
input
from
the
five
senses,
processes
quickly.
ii. Short-term
memory
(working)-
received
from
sensory
register,
remains
or
fades
depending
on
individuals
priorities.
iii. Long-term
memory-
where
information
is
stored
for
future
use
(recall).
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b. Theories
of
forgetting.
i. Repression.
People
unconsciously
forget
unpleasant
feelings
from
negative
experience.
ii. Interference.
People
forget
because
new
experience
overshadow
prior
experiences.
iii. Disuse.
People
forget
things
that
are
not
used.
iv. Suppression.
Similar
to
repression,
except
that
suppression
is
conscious
form
of
forgetting.
12. Retention
of
learning.
a. Praise
stimulates
remembering.
Reponses
which
give
a
pleasurable
return
tend
to
be
repeated.
b. Recall
is
promoted
by
association.
Information
associated
with
something
to
be
learned
aids
recall.
c. Favorable
attitudes
aid
retention.
People
learn
and
remember
only
what
they
wish
to
know.
d. Learning
with
all
senses
is
most
effective.
Use
all
senses
for
greater
understanding
and
recall.
e. Meaningful
repetition
aids
recall.
Practice
and
repetition
provide
opportunity
for
better
retention.
13. Transfer
of
learning
a. Positive
transfer.
Past
knowledge
supports
new
learning.
b. Negative
transfer.
Past
knowledge
confuses/detracts
from
new
learning.
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conferencing, etc.
2. Advantages
are
that
it
is
learner-centered,
easily
updated,
cost
competitive,
accessible
anytime
and
anywhere.
d. Demonstration-performance
method
1. Based
on
the
principle
that
people
learn
by
doing.
2. Instructor
shows
the
correct
way
to
do
an
activity,
then
the
student
repeats
the
same
activity.
3. This
method
is
best
used
for
mastery
of
a
mental
or
physical
skill
requiring
practice.
e. Drill
and
practice
method
1. Based
on
the
principle
of
exercise
2. Promotes
learning
through
repetition
4. Problem
based
learning
a. Type of learning that confronts students with real world problems, thus forcing them to reach
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e. Oral
Assessment
Made
up
of
fact
questions
and
HOTS
questions
Fact
usually
concerns
who,
what,
when,
and
where
HOTS
usually
concern
why
or
how,
and
require
the
student
to
combine
knowledge
of
facts
with
the
ability
to
analyze
situations,
solve
problems,
and
arrive
at
conclusions
f. Characteristics
of
effective
questions
1. Apply
to
the
subject
of
instruction
2. Be
brief
and
concise,
but
also
clear
and
definite
3. Be
adapted
to
the
ability,
experience,
and
stage
of
training
of
the
students
4. Center
on
only
one
idea
(limited
to
who,
what,
when,
where,
how,
or
why,
not
a
combination)
5. Present
a
clear
challenge
to
the
students
6. Types
of
questions
to
avoid
(POT
BIT)
a. Puzzle
b. Oversize
c. Toss-up
d. Bewilderment
e. Irrelevant
f. Trick
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b. Praise
pays
dividends,
but
when
given
too
freely
it
becomes
valueless
e. Criticize
Constructively
a. It
is
important
to
identify
mistakes
and
failures
b. If
the
student
is
briefed
on
the
errors
AND
is
told
how
to
correct
them,
progress
can
be
made
f. Be
Consistent
a. Students
have
a
keen
interest
in
knowing
what
is
required
to
please
the
instructor
i. The
instructors
philosophy
and
actions
must
be
consistent
to
avoid
student
confusion
2. Flight
instructor
responsibilities
a. Physiological
obstacles
for
flight
students
i. Do
not
ignore
negative
factors
a. Fear
of
small
aircraft
b. Strange
noises
c. G-forces/Motion
sickness
b. Ensuring
student
ability
i. Flight
instructors
have
the
responsibility
to
provide
guidance
and
restraint
with
respect
to
solo
ops
ii. This
is
by
far
the
most
important
responsibility
since
the
instructor
is
the
only
person
in
a
position
to
make
the
determination
that
a
student
is
ready
for
solo
ops
iii. Before
endorsing
solo
flight,
the
student
should
display
consistent
ability
to
perform
the
maneuvers
a. The
student
should
also
be
capable
of
handling
ordinary
problems
that
might
occur
3. Professionalism
a. Sincerity
i. Be
straight
forward
and
honest
ii. Do
not
attempt
to
hide
some
inadequacy
behind
a
smokescreen
or
unrelated
instruction
a. Teaching
is
based
upon
acceptance
of
the
instructor
as
qualified
iii. Acceptance
of
the
Student
a. The
instructor
must
accept
all
students
as
they
are,
including
all
faults
and
problems
b. Under
no
circumstance
should
the
instructor
do
something
which
implies
degrading
the
student
c. Acceptance,
rather
than
ridicule,
and
support,
rather
than
reproof,
will
encourage
learning
b. Personal
Appearance
and
Habits
i. Instructors
are
expected
to
be
neat,
clean,
and
appropriately
dressed
a. Attire
worn
should
be
to
a
professional
status
b. Personal
habits
have
a
significant
effect
on
the
professional
image
c. Demeanor
a. Instruction
is
best
done
with
a
calm,
pleasant,
thoughtful
approach
putting
the
student
at
ease
b. The
instructor
must
constantly
portray
competence
in
the
subject
matter
and
genuine
interest
in
the
students
well
being
d. Proper
Language
a. The
professional
instructor
speaks
normally,
without
inhibitions,
and
speaks
positively
and
descriptively,
without
profanity
4. Evaluation
of
student
ability
a. Demonstrated
Ability
i. The
evaluation
considers
the
students
mastery
of
the
elements
involved
in
the
maneuver
or
procedure,
rather
than
merely
the
overall
performance
ii. Evaluation
of
ability
during
flight
must
be
based
on
established
standards
of
performance
a. These
standards
should
be
modified
to
apply
to
the
students
experience
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f.
Eating/Emotion
7. PAVE
checklist
a. P=
Pilot
in
Command
(PIC):
IMSAFE
checklist
combined
with
proficiency,
recency,
and
currency
b. A=
Aircraft:
what
limitations
will
the
aircraft
impose
on
the
flight
c. V=
EnVironment:
weather,
airport,
airspace,
night
flying
requirements
d. E=
External
Pressures:
anything
external
to
the
flight
that
creates
pressure
to
complete
the
flight
(often
the
expense
of
safety)
8. 5P
checklist
a. Plan
b. Plane
c. Pilot
d. Passengers
e. Programming
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Area of Operations II
Technical Subject Areas
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42
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e. Motion
sickness
i. conflicting
messages
caused
by
continued
stimulation
of
the
tiny
portion
of
the
inner
ear
which
controls
the
pilots
sense
of
balance.
The
pilot
should
not
take
prevention
drugs
(Dramamine)
as
they
can
cause
drowsiness,
and
deterioration
in
judgment
ii. Symptoms
loss
of
appetite,
dry
mouth,
sweating,
nausea,
headaches
iii. Corrective
action
open
air
vents,
loosen
clothes,
supplemental
oxygen,
focus
on
outside
point,
avoid
head
movement
f. Carbon
monoxide
poisoning
i. colorless,
odorless,
and
tasteless
gas.
Contained
in
exhaust
fumes
and
tobacco
smoke.
Can
reduce
the
ability
of
the
blood
to
carry
oxygen.
Can
occur
inflight
by
exhaust
fumes
escaping
through
the
manifold
and
into
the
aircraft.
ii. Symptoms
headache,
drowsiness,
dizziness
iii. Corrective
actions
shut
off
heater,
open
air
vents
g. Fatigue
and
stress
i. Fatigue
1. Acute
fatigue
felt
after
long
periods
of
physical
strain
a. Coordination
and
alertness
reduced
b. Prevented
by
adequate
sleep/rest,
exercise,
and
nutrition
2. Chronic
fatigue
not
recovering
from
acute
fatigue
a. Performance
falls,
judgment
becomes
impaired
b. Prolonged
periods
of
rest
are
needed
to
recover
ii. Stress
1. Bodys
response
to
demands
placed
upon
it.
a. physical,
physiological,
psychological
h. Dehydration
i. Inadequate
intake
of
fluids
or
loss
of
fluids.
Can
lose
more
fluids
at
higher
altitudes.
1. Corrective
action
drink
more
fluids,
especially
electrolyte
rich
fluids
4. The
effects
of
alcohol
and
drugs,
and
their
relationship
to
flight
safety.
a. As
little
as
1
oz.
of
liquor,
1
bottle
of
beer,
or
4
oz.
of
wine
can
impair
flying
b. More
susceptible
to
hypoxia
and
disorientation
c. FARs
prohibit
flying
within
8hrs
of
drinking,
or
while
hung
over
d. Check
FAAs
approved
medication
list
5. The
effect
of
nitrogen
excesses
incurred
during
scuba
dives
and
how
this
affects
pilots
and
passengers
during
flight.
a. Nitrogen
absorbed
into
the
blood
stream
during
dives
can
expand
even
at
low
altitudes
and
cause
severe
problems.
i. Wait
at
least
24
hours
to
fly
after
diving
with
an
uncontrolled
ascent
or
flying
above
8000ft
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a.
15. Operations
at
non-towered
airports.
a. be
alert
and
look
for
other
traffic
and
exchange
traffic
information
when
approaching
or
departing
an
airport
without
an
operating
control
tower
b. it
is
essential
that
all
radio-equipped
aircraft
transmit/
receive
on
a
common
frequency
identified
for
the
purpose
of
airport
advisories
16. Use
of
aircraft
exterior
lighting.
a.
17. Low
visibility
operations.
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i. Verbalize
clearing
ii. Clearing
turns
before
maneuvering
8. Importance
of
knowing
aircraft
blind
spots.
a. Be
aware
of
blind
spots
that
may
impede
your
vision
b. Physical
factors
such
as
doors,
window
frames,
wings,
struts,
etc
9. Relationship
between
aircraft
speed
differential
and
collision
risk.
a. Aircraft
have
high
closure
rates
and
action
must
be
taken
quickly
and
correctly
b. Sudies
show
that
the
minimum
time
it
takes
for
a
pilot
to
spot
traffic,
identify
it,
and
respond
is
12.5
seconds
10. Situations
that
involve
the
greatest
collision
risk.
a. Airways
and
airports
b. Most
collisions
occur
during
the
day
when
the
weather
is
good
c. Within
25nm
of
an
airport,
below
8000ft
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c. Spoilers
i. high-drag
devices
spoil
smooth
airflow,
reducing
lift
and
increasing
drag
ii. used
for
roll
control
with
no
adverse
yaw
iii. used
to
destroy
lift
after
landing
d. Trim
controls
i. used
to
relieve
the
pilot
of
the
need
to
maintain
constant
pressure
on
the
ight
controls
ii. Common
types:
1. Trim
tabs
a. most
common
is
single
trim
tab
on
trailing
edge
of
elevator
b. Placing
the
trim
control
in
the
full
nose-down
position
moves
the
trim
tab
to
its
full
up
position.
With
the
trim
tab
up
and
into
the
airstream,
the
airow
over
the
horizontal
tail
surface
tends
to
force
the
trailing
edge
of
the
elevator
down.
This
causes
the
tail
of
the
airplane
to
move
up,
and
the
nose
to
move
down.
2. Balance
tabs
a. coupled
to
the
control
surface
rod
so
that
when
the
primary
control
surface
is
moved
in
any
direction,
the
tab
automatically
moves
in
the
opposite
direction
to
counterbalance
the
air
pressure
3. Antiservo
tabs
a. move
in
the
same
direction
as
the
trailing
edge
of
the
stabilator
to
decrease
sensitivity
4. Ground
adjustable
tabs
a. non-movable
metal
tab
on
rudder
5. Adjustable
stabilizer
a. rather
than
using
a
movable
tab
on
the
trailing
edge
of
the
elevator,
some
aircraft
have
an
adjustable
stabilizer.
With
this
arrangement,
linkages
pivot
the
horizontal
stabilizer
about
its
rear
spar
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b. Balance
i. Forward
CG
=
(greater
downward
force
on
the
tail
is
required)
1. Higher
stalling
speed
2. May
be
impossible
to
flare
for
landing
3. Lower
cruising
speed
4. More
stable
ii. Aft
CG
=
(less
downward
force
on
the
tail
is
required)
1. Lower
stalling
speed
2. Higher
cruising
speed
3. May
be
difficult
to
recover
from
a
stall
c. Airplane
structure
i. If
max
gross
weight
exceeded,
even
load
factors
within
limits
can
cause
structural
damage
3. Methods
of
weight
and
balance
control
a. Fuel
management
fuel
burned
in
flight
changes
CG
location
b. Load
distribution
figured
before
the
flight
4. Adding
or
removing
weight
a. Added
or
removed
weight
/
total
weight
=
CG
/
distance
between
new
station
and
old
CG
5. Weight
shifting
a. when
weight
is
moved
forward,
the
total
moments
decrease;
when
weight
is
moved
aft,
total
moments
increase.
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6. Determination
of
total
weight
and
center
of
gravity
and
the
changes
that
occur
when
adding,
removing,
or
shifting
weight.
a.
Weight
x
Arm
=
Moment
b.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Fuses
Landing
Light
(for
hire)
Anti-collision
lights
Position
Lights
Spare
power
source
Engine
Starting
Procedures,
Including
Use
of
Position
and
Anti-collision
lights
prior
to
start
a. FAR
91.209
deals
with
aircraft
lights
b. Navigation
lights
turn
on
anti-collision
when
on
or
crossing
an
active
runway
c. Taxi
light/landing
light
i. Blinding
others,
draining
battery
with
low
rpm,
overheating
light
ii. Cockpit
management
iii. Propeller
clear
flash
aircraft
lights
to
warn
others
Taxiing
and
orientation
on
Airport
a. AFD
b. Airport
lighting
at
night
taxiway
and
runway
c. DO
not
taxi
faster
than
the
taxi
light
d. Use
landing
light
sparingly
to
avoid
overheating
e. Airplane
may
creep
forward
on
runup
Takeoff
and
climb
out:
a. Visual
cues
takeoff
and
climb
normal
with
exception
of
reduced
visual
cues
i. Make
certain
of
positive
liftoff/climb
ii. Use
runway
lighting
to
help
maintain
centerline
b. Instrument
cues
VSI
and
altimeter
should
be
utilized
for
climb
info,
attitude
indicator
and
heading
indicator
must
be
used
to
change
pitch
or
heading
c. Landing
light
disorientation
light
can
be
turned
off
in
smoke
or
haze
to
prevent
visual
distortions
provided
no
traffic
in
the
area
requires
it
In-Flight
Orientation:
a. Remain
vigilant
in
knowing
position
and
flight
conditions
b. Cloud
layers
and
reduced
ground
reference
can
degrade
orientation
&
navigation
c. Continually
update
position
and
reference
NAVAIDS
if
available
d. Aircraft
Position
Lights
Location
on
aircraft
e. Crossing
over
large
bodies
of
water
at
night
can
be
especially
dangerous
f. May
become
easier
to
inadvertently
fly
into
clouds
g. Collision
avoidance
position
lights
Importance
of
Verifying
the
airplanes
attitude
by
reference
to
flight
instruments:
a. Reduced
visual
references
rely
on
instruments
to
verify
aircrafts
attitude
Night
Emergencies:
a. Maintain
positive
control
b. Determine
cause
of
emergency
c. Announce
emergency
d. Look
for
dark
area
near
cluster
of
lights
faster
response
time
for
emergency
personnel
e. Complete
emergency
checklist
f. After
landing
turn
off
all
switches
and
evacuate
Traffic
Patterns
a. Identify
airport
runway
lights
i. Fly
towards
the
beacon
first,
and
then
orient
yourself
with
the
runways
b. Distance
may
be
deceptive
c. Crosscheck
instruments
to
ensure
normal
patterns
entry
Approaches
and
Landings
with
&
without
landing
lights:
a. Use
all
resources
available
i. VASI
&
PAPI
b. Without
flare
starts
when
runway
lights
on
opposite
end
of
runway
come
above
nose
(this
procedure
requires
a
quick
roundout)
c. With
do
not
focus
on
light
beam,
flare
begins
when
tire
marks
become
view
d. Haze,
Fog,
Rain
blinding
(anti-collision)
i. Not
against
FAR
turning
off
Go-Arounds
a. Same
as
Daytime
should
always
be
ready
to
make
immediate
go-around
due
to
reduce
reaction
time
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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vii. Several
instruments
are
used
in
conjunction
with
the
pressurization
controller
Supplemental
Oxygen
Systems
i. Continuous
Flow
-
oxygen
continuously
flows
and
may
be
diluted
before
being
breathed
in.
up
to
25,000ft
ii. Diluter
Demand
regulates
the
amount
of
oxygen
received,
up
to
40,000
ft
iii. Pressure
Demand
air
is
forced
into
your
lungs,
normally
installed
on
high
performance
airplanes.
Above
40,000
ft
Importance
of
Aviators
Breathing
Oxygen
a. 99.5%
pure
oxygen
not
more
than
.005mg
of
water/liter
i. Medical
oxygen
contains
more
and
freezes
in
the
lines
for
pilots
ii. Industrial
oxygen
contains
impurities
in
water
and
is
not
intended
for
breathing
Care
and
Storage
of
High-Pressure
oxygen
Bottles
a. Bottle
pressure
between
1,800
2,200
PSI
b. Temperatures
need
to
be
below
180F
c. Fastened
securely
in
the
aircraft
helps
to
prevent
damage
d. Ambient
temperature
decreases
pressure
in
cylinder
will
decrease
i. Drop
in
indicated
pressure
doesnt
necessarily
indicate
depletion
of
supply
e. Flammable
Fundamental
Concept
of
Cabin
Pressurization
a. Aircrafts
altitude
and
cabin
altitude
Characteristics
of
a
pressurized
airplane
a. Sources
Turbocharger
or
Turbine
i. Heat
exchange
unit
b. Aircraft
structure
i. Differential
pressure
difference
between
cabin
pressure
and
atmospheric
pressure
ii. Ambient
pressure
pressure
outside
the
airplane
c. Component
i. Outflow
valve
=
differential
control
ii. Safety
valve
iii. Pressure
relief
valve
=
max
differential
pressure
iv. Vacuum
relief
valve
=
max
ambient
pressure
v. Dump
valve
d. Instruments
i. Cabin
differential
pressure
gauge
ii. Cabin
altimeter
iii. Cabin
rate
of
climb
or
decent
Operation
of
a
cabin
Pressurization
System
a. POH
normal
and
emergency
operating
procedures
Problems
associated
with
Rapid
decompression
and
corresponding
Solutions
a. Decompression
i. Rapid
decompression
lungs
decompress
faster
than
the
cabin
1. Fog
may
appear,
along
with
dust
and
flying
debris,
hypoxia
is
the
main
danger
ii. Explosive
decompression
cabin
depress
faster
than
the
lungs
1. When
decompression
is
less
than
.5
seconds,
flying
debris
is
likely
b. Hypoxia
primary
danger
i. Time
of
useful
consciousness
c. Bends
characterized
around
pain
in
the
joints
d. Chokes-
pain
in
chest
desire
to
cough,
collapse
or
unconsciousness
if
descent
isnt
made
immediately
e. Parasthesia
tingling,
red
rash
resulting
from
bubbles
in
the
nervous
system,
can
also
have
paralysis,
sensory
disorder,
slurred
speech
and
disorientation
f. Shock
is
a
common
result
from
decompression
sickness
g. Actions
to
be
taken
emergency
decent,
oxygen
masks
b.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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d. NOTAMs
i. Disseminates
time-critical
aeronautical
info
temporary
or
is
not
sufficiently
known
in
advance
for
publication
on
aeronautical
charts
or
other
publications
ii. NOTAMs
characterized
by
keywords
1. Runway
2. Taxiway
3. Ramp
4. Apron
5. Aerodrome
6. Obstruction
7. Nav-aid
8. Communications
9. Services
10. Airspace
iii. FDC
NOTAMs
(flight
data
canter)
regulatory
in
nature
amendments
to
published
IAPs
and
other
current
aeronautical
charts,
TFRs
iv. Notices
to
Airmen
Publication
(NTAP)
issued
every
28
days
1. Once
NOTAM
published
in
NTAP
not
provided
during
pilot
weather
briefings
unless
requested
e. PTS
i. Availability
flight
shops/online
ii. Purpose
specify
areas
of
knowledge
and
skill
must
be
demonstrated
by
applicants
iii. General
Content
required
subjects
to
be
tested
f. Pilots
Operating
Handbook
(POH)
i. Availability
manufacturer,
bookstores
ii. Purpose
FAA
requirement
(FAR
23.1581)
iii. General
Content
airplane
description,
limitations,
emergency
procedures,
normal
procedures,
performance,
performance,
weight
&
balance,
systems,
servicing
and
maintenance,
and
supplements
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b. Control
towers
c. FSS
briefings,
en
route
communication,
search
and
rescue,
lost
aircraft/emergency,
relay
ATC
clearances,
originate
NOTAMs,
NAS
information,
receive
and
monitor
IFR
flight
plans,
monitor
NAVAIDs,
Flight
Watch
d. Recording
and
Monitoring
4. Global
Positioning
System
(GPS)
RNAV
system
on
a
worldwide
scale.
Can
be
used
for
VFR
but
shouldnt
be
the
primary
source
of
information
and
navigation
a. Space
24
satellites
i. 5
are
needed
for
navigation
in
vertical
and
horizontal
planes
b. 4
allows
only
horizontal
guidance,
3
satellites
to
triangulate,
1
vertical,
1
backs
up
the
others
c. Control
network
of
ground
based
GPS
monitors
i. Ensure
accuracy
d. User
positioning,
velocity,
and
precise
timing
e. Can
be
used
for
VFR
flight
but
shouldnt
be
heavily
relied
upon.
i. RAIM
receiver
autonomous
integrity
monitoring
lets
you
know
if
you
dont
have
the
appropriate
amount
of
satellites.
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Aeronautical
Knowledge
Test
FAR
61.35
(a)(1),
61.103
(d),
and
61.105
o Required
training
in
61.105
Flight
Proficiency/Practical
Test
FAR
61.103
(f),
61.107
(b),
and
61.109
o Required
training
in
61.107
and
61.109
Additional
Endorsements
Completion
of
a
flight
Review
FAR
61.56
(a)
and
(c)
o No
logbook
entry
reflecting
unsatisfactory
performance
is
required
Completion
of
a
Phase
of
an
FAA-Sponsored
Pilot
Proficiency
Award
Program
FAR
61.56
(e)
o WINGS
Completion
of
an
Instrument
Proficiency
Check
FAR
61.57
(d)
To
act
as
PIC
in
a
Complex
Airplane
FAR
61.31
(e)
To
Act
as
PIC
in
a
High
Performance
Airplane
FAR
61.31
(f)
To
Act
as
PIC
in
a
Tailwheel
Airplane
FAR
61.31
(i)
To
Act
as
PIC
of
an
aircraft
in
Solo
Operations
when
the
Pilot
who
does
not
hold
an
Appropriate
Category/Class
Rating
FAR
61.31
(d)(3)
Retesting
after
Failure
of
a
Knowledge
or
Practical
Test
FAR
61.49
Additional
Aircraft
Category
or
Class
Rating
(other
than
ATP)
FAR
61.63
(b)
or
(c)
Review
of
a
home
Study
Curriculum
FAR
61.35
(a)(1)
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51
52
54
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properly
equipped
i. Concerning
weather
phenomena
of
interest
to
all
aircraft
ii. Valid
6
hours
iii. Moderate
icing/turbulence
iv. Surface
winds
30
knots
or
more
v. Ceiling
1,000
feet
an/or
visibility
-3SM
over
a
50%
area
vi. Extensive
mountain
obscuration
1. SIERRA
2. TANGO
3. ZULU
c. Significant
Meteorological
Information
(SIGMET)(WS)
non
convective
potentially
hazardous
to
all
aircraft
i. Severe
icing
not
associated
with
thunderstorms
ii. Severe/extreme
turbulence
not
associated
with
thunderstorms;
CAT
iii. Dust/sandstorms
or
volcanic
ash
lowering
in
flight
visibility
-3SM
iv. Volcanic
eruption
v. Tropical
storms
or
hurricanes
1. Hawaii
and
Alaska
dont
have
Convective
SIGMETs,
convective
activity
included
for
Hawaii
and
Alaska
in
a
SIGMET
d. Convective
Significant
Meteorological
Information
(Convective
SIGMET)(WST)
hazardous
to
all
aircraft
i. Severe
thunderstorm
due
to
1. Surface
winds
50+
knots
2. Hail
at
surface
greater
than
or
equal
to
inch
3. Tornadoes
ii. Embedded
thunderstorms
iii. Line
of
thunderstorms
iv. Thunderstorms
greater
than
or
equal
to
intensity
level
4
affecting
40%
or
3,000
square
miles
5. Recognition
of
aviation
WEATHER
Hazards
to
include
Wind
Shear:
a. Aviation
WEATHER
hazards
include:
i. Thunderstorms,
turbulence,
icing,
IFR
conditions
b. Included
in
the
following
aviation
WEATHER
products
i. Area
forecast,
WST,
WS,
WA,
hurricane
advisory,
prognostic
charts
6. Factors
to
be
considered
in
Making
a
go/No-Go
decision:
a. Well-equipped
airplane
with
a
proficient
pilot
flying
b. Ceiling
and
visibility
within
WEATHER
minimums
c. Poor
equipped
airplane
with
a
new
or
rusty
pilot
d. MVFR
e. Thunderstorms
bad
WEATHER
in
general
f. IMSAFE
55
Reference: PHAK 6, Powerpoint Slides
Objective: To determine the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of
operation of systems by describing:
1. Piper Arrow PA28R-201
2. Airframe
a. Basic airframe is an aluminum alloy (light weight metal)
b. Semi-monocoque
i. Uses sub-structure for added strength
c. Structure not designed for aerobatic loads
d. Semi-tapered wings
i. 3 spars and ribs reinforce wing structure
e. Positive dihedral
i. Contributes to lateral stability
3. Engine
a. Lycoming IO-360-C1C6
i. I: Fuel injected
ii. O: Horizontally opposed
iii. 360: cubic inches of cylinder head displacement
iv. C1C6: Type of crankcase, Type of nose section, Accessory package,
Type of counterweights
b. 200 HP
c. Direct Drive: Propeller is connected directly to the crankshaft
d. 4 cylinders Normally aspirated: Not turbocharged
e. Air-cooled: Air flows through the front of the engine cowling and flows over the
engine components and exits through the rear lower cowling
f. Wet-type oil sump
g. Induction System
i. Bendix RSA-5AD1 fuel injector
1. Essentially replaces the carburetor
2. Measures fuel based on mixture control setting, sends it to fuel
manifold valve at a rate set by the throttle.
ii. Alternate Air
1. Used incase external air source is obstructed
h. Ignition System
i. Dual magnetos, 2 park plugs per cylinder (increased safety and efficiency)
ii. Left magneto has impulse coupler to aid in starting
g.
h.
i. Onspeed
i. Propeller is at same speed set by the pilot
ii. Centrifugal reaction on flyweights is equal to force of speeder spring
keeping pilot valve neutral
j. Underspeed
i. Shaft rotation slows
ii. Flyweights move in
iii. Pilot valve moves down
iv. Oil flows from propeller hub back to the sump
v. Piston moves forward
vi. Prop pitch gets finer
1. Vapor lock
2. Cost
3. Maintenance
4. Complexity
h. Servo Regulator
i. Determines how much fuel is sent to the divider based on amount of air
flowing into the engine and mixture setting
i. Fuel flow divider
i. Distributes fuel evenly to each cylinder
j. Fuel nozzles
6. Landing Gear System
a. Tricycle configuration, retractable gear
b. Hydraulically actuated, electrically driven
c. Single disc hydraulic brakes on each main gear
d. Oleo type struts
e. Shimmy dampener on nose strut to avoid vibrations
f. Main tires should be inflated to 30 psi, nose gear 27 psi
g. Gear held up by hydraulic pressure (1800 psi)
h. Held down by J-locks on main gear, C-lock on the nose gear
i. Nose gear has spring to assist in lowering nose during emergency extension
j. Gear Switches
i. Up-limit switches (1 each gear) all 3 together turn off gear unsafe light
ii. Down-limit switches: all 3 turn off gear unsafe light, turn off hydraulic pump
motor, each switch turns on respective gear down light
iii. Squat switch on left main prevents retraction of gear on the ground (switch
is open)
iv. Hydraulic pressure switch turns of hydraulic pump motor when it reaches
gear up pressure (1800 psi)
v. If pressure is lost during flight and gear comes down, pump will turn on
and retract the gear
k. Gear Warning (gear up)
i. Throttle below 14 manifold pressure
ii. Flaps set >10 degrees
iii. Gear up selected while on the ground if throttle is closed
iv. Gear unsafe light turns on when gear is in transit
l. Emergency Gear Extension
i. Should be used if gear do not extend by use of the gear handle
ii. Refer to checklist
iii. Switch equalizes pressure in the hydraulic system and allows the gear to
fall naturally due to gravity
m. Steering
4.
5.
6.
7.
i. Must be replaced when half battery life is used, or after an hour of cumulative
use
d. Altimeter 24 calendar months
e. Transponder 24 calendar months
f. Static System 24 calendar months
g. Airworthiness Directives recall for aircraft, something is wrong with the aircraft that
needs to be fixed
i. Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM), followed by Final Rule
ii. Final Rule
iii. Emergency AD must be complied with immediately
Required Equipment (91.205)
a. ATOMATOFLAMES day VFR
b. FLAPS nights VFR
How to know if you need a piece of equipment to fly?
a. Check MEL (if applicable), if it is listed on MEL, you are safe to fly.
b. Check KOEL (91.213(d)(2)(ii))
c. Check VFR day type certificate
d. Check any ADs
e. Check 91.205
f. If not required by any of the above, equipment must be removed and placarded inop
g. Final decision must be made by the pilot to continue the flight
Preventative maintenance (Part 43 appendix A(c))
a. Pilot can perform without help of a certified aircraft mechanic
b. Simple or minor preservation operations
c. All preventative maintenance done must be entered in the aircraft logbook
d. Ex) Replacing tires, Adding oil, Replacing seat belts, Cleaning, etc
Special Flight Permit
a. Allows the aircraft to be flown when it is not airworthy, but capable of safe flight
b. Request must be sent to the FAA (Form 8130-6)
i. Purpose of the flight
ii. Proposed itinerary
iii. Required crew
iv. In what way the aircraft is unairworthy
c. Reasons for using a special flight permit
i. Flying the aircraft to a base where maintenance can be done
ii. Delivering a new aircraft (ferry)
iii. Flight testing new equipment (experimental)
iv. Evacuating the aircraft from an area of impending danger
v. Demonstration flight
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations V:
Preflight Procedures
Task A: Preflight Inspection
Task B: Cockpit Management
Task C: Engine Starting
Task D: Taxiing (ASEL)
Task E: Before Takeoff Check
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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b. Brakes should be checked for corrosion, proper alignment, and any hydraulic
leaks.
c. Check landing gear struts.
8. Engine and Propeller
a. Check condition of the engine cowling.
b. Check condition of propeller spinner (hub).
c. Check propeller for nicks, cracks, and corrosion.
d. Look inside the cowling for any leaks or foreign objects.
e. Engine intake and exhaust should be checked for obstruction.
9. It is the pilots responsibility to determine if the aircraft is safe to fly. If you are not sure of
something, ask maintenance personnel.
10. Youd rather find a problem with the plane on the ground than in the air.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Actual starting procedures vary with different engines, systems, and conditions.
However, before starting procedures and precautions can be applied to all aircraft.
First, make sure the aircraft is positioned so the prop blast will not damage any property
or be discourteous to others.
Before Starting
a. Verify preflight is complete.
b. Follow Before Engine Start checklist.
c. Visually confirm the propeller area is clear.
d. Call CLEAR out the airplane to alert people on the ramp.
During & After Start
a. Always keep one hand on the throttle while cranking the engine.
b. Low RPM setting (800-1000) is recommended after engine starting.
c. Let the engine warm up before overworking it.
d. Let the oil pressure and temperature rise. (cold weather)
If the engine fails to start right away, do not crank the engine longer than 30 seconds
without letting it cool down for 30 seconds to a minute.
a. Check POH or Placards for specific procedures.
If starter is still engaged after start, shutdown immediately.
a. This can be detected by high current draw from the ammeter or a starter
engaged warning.
Engine Fire During Start
a. First thing to do is cut-off fuel flow to the engine, mixture idle, fuel pump off, fuel
selector off.
b. Burn all remaining fuel in the cylinders, throttle full open, continue cranking.
c. If fire continues, evacuate the aircraft with the fire extinguisher and fight the fire
from a safe distance.
Hand Propping
a. Hand propping is used in aircraft without a starter motor, should only be used
when absolutely necessary.
b. Should only be done by two people who are familiar with the airplane and hand
propping procedures and are able to do so.
c. The person pulling the propeller blades is in charge. The other person must be
seated in the cockpit with the brakes set.
i. Chocks can also be placed in front of the main wheels, or the tail tied down.
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CFI Notebook
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the
ground.
2. Awareness of other aircraft and consideration for right-of-way procedures are important
for safety while taxiing.
a. Runway Incursion Avoidance
3. Taxiing speed can vary depending on your location on the airport.
a. While in a parking area near a lot of other planes or people, speed should be kept
to that of a brisk walk. (Approx. 5 kts)
b. On a main taxiway, speed should be able to be slowed by only reducing the
throttle.
c. It is best to slow down before a turn to reduce side load on the gear struts.
d. More power may be required to start an airplane moving or during a turn.
4. If provided, taxiway centerlines should be followed unless necessary to clear
obstructions.
5. Steering
a. Steering is done by using rudder pedals and brakes.
b. The pilot should not use the brakes instead of the rudder pedals to steer.
c. Brakes and steering should be tested right away.
6. Crosswind corrections
a. Depending on where the wind is coming from and how strong it is, flight controls
should be placed in a certain way to keep the wings level and avoid damage to
the flight controls.
b. With a quartering headwind, ailerons should roll towards the wind.
i. This places the upwind aileron in the UP position, this will prevent the wind
from lifting the upwind wing.
c. With a quartering tailwind, ailerons should roll away from the wind, and elevator
should be down.
i. This will reduce the tendency of the wind to get under the wing or elevator
and nose over the airplane.
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CFI Notebook
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The before takeoff check is a systematic procedure for checking the engine, flight
controls, systems, and avionics prior to flight.
a. Normally done in a run-up area or a location near the takeoff end of the runway.
Before beginning the check, the airplane should be positioned away from other aircraft
and in such a way that nothing will be damaged by the prop blast.
Allow the engine to warm up properly before increasing power for the check.
a. Allow circulation of oil to cool and clean the engine before bringing the power up.
Follow the proper checklist in the POH for specific procedures.
Pilot must divide attention inside and outside the cockpit
a. Make sure the airplane is not moving.
b. Check engine instruments inside the cockpit.
c. Very all engine gauges are within the limitations set by the manufacturer in the
POH.
Review information regarding the takeoff and departure.
a. Takeoff performance, which was calculated before the preflight.
b. Check runway distances and obstruction clearances
c. Review the procedure for the specific takeoff to be performed.
i. Flap setting
ii. Climb-out speed
d. Discuss emergency procedures in the event of an engine failure.
Visually scan the runway environment and approach area for any hazards.
Verify with the checklist that all items are complete before continuing.
Do not proceed onto the runway until you have received clearance from ATC.
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66
61
66
69
72
75
78
81
84
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CFI Notebook
To allow the airplane to accelerate to normal climbing speed, with a headwind and the path is
obstruction free.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and
rejected takeoff procedures
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions
c) Clears area, taxies onto the takeoff surface and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path
d) Advances the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to VY
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY 5 knots (private: +10/ 5) to maintain a safe
maneuvering altitude
g) Retracts the landing gear if appropriate, and flaps after positive rate of climb is established
h) Maintains takeoff power and VY to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control, proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
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Normal Takeoff
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CFI Notebook
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and objectives,
and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and rejected
takeoff procedures
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions
c) Clears area, taxies onto the takeoff surface and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path
d) Advances the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to VY
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY 5 knots (private: +10/ 5)
g) Retracts the landing gear if appropriate, and flaps after positive rate of climb is established
h) Maintains takeoff power and VY to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control, proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
j) Complies with noise abatement procedures
k) Completes appropriate checklists
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CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:
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CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to short field takeoff and maximum performance climb
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions, set flaps as recommended
c) Clears area, taxies onto the takeoff surface and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path
d) Applies brakes (if appropriate) while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to recommended obstacle clearance airspeed
VX
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain the recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or VX
5 knots (private: +10/ 5) until the airplane is 50 feet above the surface
g) After clearing the obstacle, establishes the pitch attitude for VY accelerates to VY, and maintains VY,
5 knots, during the climb
h) Retracts the landing gear, if appropriate and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by
manufacturer
i) Maintains takeoff power and VY 5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
j) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
k) Completes appropriate checklists
CFI Notebook
b) Failure to position the airplane for maximum utilization of available takeoff area
c) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps
No aileron deflection for crosswind
flaps not set as recommended
d) Improper power application
not applying full power
applying power too quickly or too slowly
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during
maneuvers such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
f) Poor directional control
Not correcting for torque effect
Overcorrecting or under correcting with rudder
g) Improper use of brakes
Failure to hold brakes until full power is developed and engine instruments are checked
Failure to remove feet from brakes during takeoff roll
h) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Too much pitch too soon
Forcing the airplane off the runway; airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall
back on the runway
Allowing the takeoff roll to continue causing the airplane to remain on the runway too long
i) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Retracting flaps/landing gear before clear of obstacle
Not maintaining best angle of climb prior to flaps/gear retraction
j) Drift during Climb
Allowing the airplane to drift away from the runway extended centerline
Not clearing area directly in front of aircraft during climb
k) Improper use of checklist
Does not use checklist consistently
Fails to complete checklist at appropriate time
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CFI Notebook
To operate the airplane off an unimproved surface such as grass, soft sand, mud, snow, or rough terrain, etc.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and objectives,
and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to soft field takeoff and climb
b) Position the flight controls for the existing conditions, and to maximize lift as quickly as possible
c) Clears area, taxies onto the takeoff surface and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path
while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
d) Establishes and maintains a pitch attitude that will transfer the weight of the airplane from the wheels to
the wings as rapidly as possible
e) Lifts off at lowest possible airspeed and remains in ground effect while accelerating to VX or VY, as
appropriate
f) Establishes a pitch attitude for VX or VY as appropriate, and maintains selected airspeed 5 knots (private:
+10/t5) during climb
g) Retracts landing gear, if appropriate and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by the
manufacturer
h) Maintains takeoff power and VX or VY 5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
j) Completes appropriate checklists
CFI Notebook
Does not check for traffic before crossing runway hold line and before entering a taxiway
Does not read back runway crossing and hold short instructions
Unfamiliar with airport signage
b) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps
No aileron deflection for crosswind
flaps not set as recommended
c) Hazards of allowing the airplane to stop on the takeoff surface prior to initiating takeoff aircraft may not
have enough power to begin takeoff roll again
d) Improper power application
not applying full power
applying power too quickly or too slowly
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during maneuvers
such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
f) Poor directional control
Not correcting for torque effect
Overcorrecting or under correcting with rudder
g) Improper use of brakes
Failure to hold brakes until full power is developed and engine instruments are checked
Failure to remove feet from brakes during takeoff roll
h) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Too much pitch too soon
Forcing the airplane off the runway; airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall back
on the runway
Allowing the takeoff roll to continue causing the airplane to remain on the runway too long
i) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Retracting flaps/landing gear before clear of obstacle
Not maintaining best angle of climb prior to flaps/gear retraction
Not remaining in ground effect while accelerating to VX or VY as appropriate
j) Drift during Climb
Allowing the airplane to drift away from the runway extended centerline
Not clearing area directly in front of aircraft during climb
k) Improper use of checklist
Does not use checklist consistently
Fails to complete checklist at appropriate time
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CFI Notebook
Soft-Field Takeoff
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CFI Notebook
To establish an angle of descent and airspeed that will permit the airplane to reach the desired
touchdown point at an airspeed which will result in a minimum floating just before touchdown.
Procedure:
Crosswind
Approach &
Landing:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind approach and landing
b) Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point
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CFI Notebook
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed and adjusts pitch and
power as required
d) Maintains a stabilized Approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VS
O, 5 knot, with wind gust factor applied (private is allowed +10/ 5 knots)
e) Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown
f) Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed
g) Touches down at or within 200 feet beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplanes
longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path (private is allowed 400 feet)
h) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
sequence
i) Completes appropriate checklist
Common
Errors:
a) Improper use of landing performance data and limitations. Not calculating landing distances correctly
b) Failure to establish the approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in the proper
sequence. Not following established procedure
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach:
Not establishing correct airspeeds for downwind, base, and final segments
Not adjusting power and pitch attitude as necessary to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not using flaps as necessary to control speed and rate of descent
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base and final
d) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
e) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
Rounding out too late resulting in, if not corrected, a hard landing followed by a bounce and a
stall and another hard landing
Rounding out too high resulting in, if not corrected, an eventual loss in airspeed followed by a
high sink rate and a hard landing
Rounding out and ballooning down the runway; usually caused by misjudging the rate of
descent and overcontrolling
Rounding out and floating down the runway; usually caused by excessive airspeed on final
approach
Touchdown followed by a bounce as a result of an excessive rate of descent on final
Touchdown with the aircraft drifting sideways as a result of not applying enough wing low into
the crosswind
Touchdown in a crab as a result of allowing a wing to rise on roundout or in flare
f) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Allowing a wing to rise after touchdown
Allowing touchdown while in a crab
Over controlling with rudder
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or overcontrolling airplane; this problem can be
significant in Tailwheel aircraft
g) Improper use of brakes:
Not using aerodynamic braking
Excessive use of brakes
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook
To instruct the student in how to dissipate altitude without increasing the airplanes speed.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of a forward slip to a landing
b) Considers wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions, and selects the most suitable
touchdown point
c) Establishes slipping attitude at the point from which a landing can be made using recommended
approach, landing configuration and airspeed; adjusts pitch attitude and power as required
d) Maintains ground track aligned with runway centerline and airspeed which results in minimum float
during roundout
e) Makes a smooth, timely and correct control application during recovery from the slip, roundout and
touchdown
f) Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, at or within 400 feet beyond a specified point
, with no side drift, and with the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over runway centerline
g) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout approach and landing
h) Completes appropriate checklist
CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook
Slip to a Landing
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CFI Notebook
For the pilot to learn when to go around from a rejected landing, and to recognize the need for a go
around early.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a go around/rejected landing
b) Makes a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing
c) Applies takeoff power immediately and transitions to climb pitch attitude for VY, and maintains VY 5
knots (private: +10/ 5)
d) Retract flaps as appropriate
e) Retracts landing gear if appropriate after a positive rate of climb is established
f) Maneuvers to the side of runway/landing area to clear and avoid conflicting traffic
g) Maintains takeoff power and VY 5knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
h) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the climb
i) Completes appropriate checklist
CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook
Go-Around/Rejected Landing
1. Throttle: FULL
2. Pitch: CLIMB ATTITUDE
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Flaps: 20
5. Positive Rate, 70kts: Flaps 10
6. 80 kts: Gear up
7. Trim: SET
8. Accelerate to Vy (88kt
9. Flaps: 0
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CFI Notebook
Objectives:
To establish an angle of descent and airspeed that will permit the airplane to reach the desired
touchdown point at an airspeed which will result in a minimum floating just before touchdown.
Procedure:
1. Establish a normal traffic pattern, but flown at 10 knots slower on downwind, base, and final
2. At midfield, on downwind, complete the pre landing checklist (GUMPS)
3. Abeam the touchdown point on downwind, reduce power
4. Maintain the altitude and level pitch attitude momentarily to dissipate airspeed
5. Lower Flaps to 10 and Retrim the airplane
6. Establish initial approach speed (1.4 x VSO) Retrim the airplane, if necessary
7. At an approximate 45 point from the landing threshold (30 point for a short field with obstacle),
turn base
8. Extend second notch of flaps, Retrim the airplane, and apply wind drift correction
9. Lead turn to final to roll out on runway extended centerline
10. Extend final flaps on final
11. Simultaneously adjust power and pitch attitude to control rate of descent. Power for altitude, pitch
for airspeed.
12. If landing over a 50 ft. obstacle, when clear, adjust pitch attitude slightly to establish rate of descent.
Dont reduce power until in ground effect.
13. If landing with no obstacle, adjust descent angle to land just inside of the desired touchdown point
14. After landing, identify and retract flaps, and apply maximum braking and full elevator back pressure
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a short field approach and landing
b) Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed and adjusts pitch and
power as required
d) Maintains a stabilized Approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VS
O, 5 knot, with wind gust factor applied (private is allowed +10/ 5 knots)
e) Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown
f) Touches down smoothly at minimum control airspeed
g) Touches down at or within 100 feet beyond a specified point, with no drift, minimum float and with
the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/
landing path(private is allowed 200 feet)
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CFI Notebook
h) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
sequence
i) Applies brakes as necessary, to stop in the shortest distance consistent with safety. Completes
appropriate checklist
Common
Errors:
a) Improper use of landing performance data and limitations. Not calculating landing distances correctly
b) Failure to establish the approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in the proper
sequence. Not following established procedure
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach:
Not establishing correct airspeeds for downwind, base, and final segments
Not reducing as necessary to control rate of descent
If short field over an obstacle: when clear of obstacle, reducing power resulting in possible stall;
diving for runway resulting in excessive airspeed and floating
Not using flaps as necessary to control speed and rate of descent
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base, and final
d) Improper technique in use of power, wing flaps, and trim:
Not using pitch and power to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not extending flaps as necessary
Not trimming aircraft for appropriate airspeed
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
f) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
Rounding out too late resulting in, if not corrected, a hard landing followed by a bounce and a
stall and another hard landing
Rounding out too high resulting in, if not corrected, an eventual loss in airspeed followed by a
high sink rate and a hard landing
Rounding out and ballooning down the runway; usually caused by misjudging the rate of
descent and overcontrolling
Rounding out and floating down the runway; usually caused by excessive airspeed on final
approach
Touchdown followed by a bounce as a result of an excessive rate of descent on final
g) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Allowing a wing to rise after touchdown
Allowing touchdown while in a crab
Over controlling with rudder
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or overcontrolling airplane; this problem can be
significant in Tailwheel aircraft
g) Improper use of brakes:
Not using aerodynamic braking
Excessive use of brakes
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook
To land on an unimproved surface, keeping the weight supported by the wings as long as possible.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a soft field approach and landing
b) Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and adjusts pitch attitude and
power as required
d) Maintains a stabilized Approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VS
O, 5 knot, with wind gust factor applied (private is allowed +10/ 5 knots)
e) Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown
f) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
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CFI Notebook
g) Touches down softly, with no drift, and with the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with the landing
surface
h) Maintains proper position of flight controls and sufficient speed to taxi on soft surface
i) Completes appropriate checklist
Common
Errors:
a) Improper use of landing performance data and limitations. Not calculating landing distances correctly
b) Failure to establish the approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in the proper
sequence. Not following established procedure
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach:
Not establishing correct airspeeds for downwind, base, and final segments
Not reducing as necessary to control rate of descent
Not using flaps as necessary to control speed and rate of descent
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base, and final
d) Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface:
Not inspecting area first to determine landing surface
Not considering the effect of a headwind in slowing the airplanes forward speed on touchdown
e) Improper technique in use of power, wing flaps, and trim:
Not using pitch and power to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not extending flaps as necessary
Not trimming aircraft for appropriate airspeed
f) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
g) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
Rounding out too late resulting in, if not corrected, a hard landing followed by a bounce and a
stall and another hard landing
Rounding out too high resulting in, if not corrected, an eventual loss in airspeed followed by a
high sink rate and a hard landing
Rounding out and ballooning down the runway; usually caused by misjudging the rate of
descent and over controlling
Rounding out and floating down the runway; usually caused by excessive airspeed on final
approach
Touchdown followed by a bounce as a result of an excessive rate of descent on final
h) Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown. Not maintaining sufficient back elevator
pressure to keep weight off of the nose wheel and prevent a heavy load on the nose gear causing the
nose wheel to dig in
i) Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown:
Not maintaining some power to increase elevator effectiveness so the weight may be kept off of
the nose wheel as long as possible
Not maintaining some power to keep the aircraft moving and prevent it from becoming stuck
j) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Allowing a wing to rise after touchdown
Allowing touchdown while in a crab
Over controlling with rudder
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or over controlling airplane; this problem can be
significant in Tailwheel aircraft
k) Improper use of brakes:
Not using aerodynamic braking
Excessive use of brakes
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook
Objectives:
To instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane without
power to a safe landing.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a power off 180 accuracy approach and landing
b) Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point
c) Positions airplane on downwind leg, parallel to landing runway, and not more than 1,000 feet AGL
d) Abeam the specified touchdown point, closes throttle and establishes appropriate glide speed
e) Completes final airplane configuration
f) Touches down in normal landing attitude, at or within 200 feet beyond the specified touchdown point
g) Completes the appropriate checklist
a) Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence not
establishing pitch, power and trim at key points; prematurely extending flaps or delaying flap extension
b) Failure to identify the key points in the pattern not recognizing key point on downwind, or 45key
point on base leg
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach airspeed too fast or too slow on final; not
determining and establishing the necessary descent rate resulting in being too high or too low on final
d) Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface delaying turn to base resulting in
excessively low final; turning base too early resulting in an excessively high final; no consideration of
effect of runway surface (rough or soft)
e) Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim not reducing power; retracting or extending flaps to
reach desired spot; neglecting use of trim after power reduction and configuration changes
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CFI Notebook
f) Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown starting roundout too late in an effort to land
on desired spot; pulling the elevator control back too early in an effort to stretch a glide to reach the
desired spot
g) Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown not using aerodynamic braking to shorten
the landing roll
h) Poor directional control after touchdown careless use of rudder excessive use of brakes control
direction; no use of aileron
i) Improper use of brakes excessive use of braking to stop at desired point
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CFI Notebook
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Airspeed: 5kts
Touchdown: +100ft, -0ft
No side load, minimal float
95
CFI Notebook
96
91
93
95
96
CFI Notebook
To learn the proper use of controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in
relation to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of
dividing attention and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Select some portion of the nose as a reference point, and keep that point fixed on the horizon
2. Cross check this position against the flight instruments
3. Select two or more outside visual reference points directly ahead of the airplane, to form points in an
imaginary line, to help the pilot track along that line
4. Reference instruments to make sure youre maintaining constant direction
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on
instruments inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
b) Application of control movements rather than pressures use of jerky control movements instead of
smooth control pressures
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls not applying right rudder to compensate for torque effect in
straight and level flight
d) Faulty trim technique
Failure to trim the aircraft
Excessive use of trim
Using trim as a primary flight control
Trimming the aircraft before establishing pitch attitude and power setting
97
CFI Notebook
98
CFI Notebook
To change or return to a desired heading, involves coordination of all three flight controls aileron,
rudder, and elevator.
Procedure:
1. Roll into a banked attitude by coordinating use of ailerons and rudder in the direction of turn
2. When the desired angle of bank is obtained, neutralize the ailerons and rudder to maintain bank
3. Back pressure must be applied in the turn to compensate for the loss of vertical lift and to maintain
altitude
4. Roll out of the turn by applying coordinated aileron and rudder pressure in the opposite direction of
the turn until level attitude is reached. As the angle of bank is decreased the elevator should be
released smoothly as necessary to maintain altitude.
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on
instruments inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
b) Application of control movements rather than pressures use of jerky control movements instead of
smooth control pressures
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Initially too much bank or rudder when establishing the turn
Slipping or skidding during the turn
d) Faulty attitude and bank control
Excessive or insufficient back pressure resulting in a gain or loss of altitude
Bank angle varies due to lack of division of attention between inside and outside references
99
CFI Notebook
100
CFI Notebook
To learn the proper use of the controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in relation
to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of dividing attention
and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Establish a climb by applying back pressure on the elevator to increase pitch attitude. Simultaneously
establish the desired bank angle if performing a climbing turn.
2. Apply full power and establish pitch attitude for the climbing airspeed (VY)
3. Cross check the airspeed indicator with the position of the airplanes nose in relation to the horizon as well
as the attitude indicator
4. Trim the aircraft for this attitude/airspeed
5. Use right rudder to correct for torque effect
6. Maintain a constant heading by cross checking visual references as well as instrument references.
Maintain wings level while cross checking heading indicator, attitude indicator, turn coordinator. If
performing a climbing turn, maintain visual references as well as instrument references.
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and objectives,
and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on instruments
inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
b) Application of control movements rather than pressures use of jerky control movements instead of
smooth control pressures
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Not compensating for torque effect in climb
Slipping or skidding during the turn
d) Faulty attitude and bank control
Failure to trim the aircraft
Excessive use of trim
Using trim as a primary flight control
Trimming the aircraft before establishing pitch attitude and power setting
101
CFI Notebook
To learn the proper use of the controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in
relation to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of
dividing attention and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Maintain a level pitch attitude to reduce airspeed to the recommended glide speed
2. Establish the desired bank angle if performing a descending turn
3. Allow the pitch attitude to decrease as necessary to maintain best glide speed
4. When Airspeed is stabilized, the aircraft should be retrimmed
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on
instruments inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
b) Application of control movements rather than pressures use of jerky control movements instead of
smooth control pressures
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Initially too much bank or rudder when establishing the turn
Slipping or skidding during the turn
d) Faulty Trim technique
Failure to trim the aircraft
Excessive use of trim
Using trim as a primary flight control
Trimming the aircraft before establishing pitch attitude and power setting
e) Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
102
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations IX
Performance Maneuvers
98
101
103
106
103
CFI Notebook
To develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and control techniques while
executing a high performance turn
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to steep turns
b) Establishes the manufacturers recommended airspeed or if one is not stated a safe airspeed not to
exceed VA
c) Rolls into a coordinated 360 steep turn with at least a 50 bank, followed by a 360 steep turn in the
opposite direction
d) divides attention between airplane control and orientation
e) maintains the entry altitude, 100 feet, airspeed 10 knots, bank 5 and rolls out on the entry
heading 10
104
CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:
a) Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Increasing pitch attitude before establishing bank angle with resulting gain in altitude
Not releasing back pressure in recovery with resulting gain in altitude
Not enough or too much bank
Not use of power to assist in maintaining altitude
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls. Slipping or skidding through maneuver; a skid is common in
turns to the right
c) Inappropriate control applications not making the necessary minor adjustments in altitude and bank
throughout maneuver resulting in the need for major adjustments
d) Improper technique in correcting altitude deviations not reducing bank angle first before increasing
back pressure when trying to correct for loss of altitude
e) Loss of Orientation the initial heading from which the maneuver began is forgotten and/or the
reference point can no longer be found
f) Excessive deviation from desired heading during rollout
Not Planning for rollout
Not leading the heading to be rolled out on by half the amount of bank in degrees
105
CFI Notebook
Steep Turn
Objective: To complete two-360 degree turns with 45-50 degrees of bank while maintaining altitude
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
3. Prop: 2300 RPM
4. Man Press: 16" - 17"
5. Airspeed: 95kts
6. Heading: CHECK with prominent landmark
7. Enter a 360 degree turn using at least 50 degrees of bank
8. Rollout on entry heading
9. Immediately repeat in opposite direction
10. Return to straight-and-level cruise flight
106
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Altitude: 100ft
Heading: 10
Bank: 50o, 5o
Airspeed: 10kts
CFI Notebook
To improve pilot techniques for power off turns, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and division of
attention. It is most practical application is providing a procedure for dissipating altitude while
remaining over a selected spot in preparation for landing, especially for emergency forced landings.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a steep spiral
b) Selects an altitude sufficient to continue through a series of at least three 360 turns
c) Selects a suitable ground reference point
d) Enters the maneuver on a downwind heading
e) Applies wind drift correction to track a constant radius circle around selected reference point wit
h bank not to exceed 60 at the steepest point in turn
f) Divides attention between airplane control and ground track, while maintaining coordinated flight
g) maintains the specified airspeed, 10 knots, rolls out toward object or specified heading 10.
a) Improper pitch, bank and power coordination during entry or completion not establishing
appropriate pitch, airspeed, and power setting for glide; exceeding 60 of bank during turns; not clearing
engine during maneuver
b) uncoordinated use of flight controls inadvertently slipping or skidding the airplane during turns
c) Improper Planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius not maintaining
constant airspeed as bank is increased and decreased in turns; not recognizing and correcting for wind
drift. Failure to hold airspeed constant will cause the radius of turn and necessary angle of bank to vary
excessively
d) failure to stay oriented to the number of turns and the rollout heading not remaining aware of
number of turns prior to 1,000 feet, or rollout to define object or specified heading
107
CFI Notebook
Steep Spiral
Objective: To make a constant radius gliding turn around a selected ground reference.
1. Climb to 5000 AGL
2. Clear Area
PTS Standards
3. Begin maneuver on UPWIND
Commercial:
4. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
Select altitude that allows for three 360o turns
5. Mixture: AS REQD
Maintain coordinated flight and constant radius turn
6. Prop: 2400 RPM
Divide attention between airplane, control, track
7. Abeam reference point:
Airspeed: 10kts
-Throttle: IDLE
Heading: 10o
-Enter gliding turn at 70kts
-Do not exceed 60 degree bank
8. Correct for wind drift by steeping bank downwind or shallowing the bank upwind
9. Make three 360 degree constant radius turns around the selected reference point
10. Clear engine on each upwind leg
11. Maintain Vglide
108
CFI Notebook
To develop the pilots coordination, orientation, planning, feel for maximum performance flight, and
positive control techniques at varying airspeeds and attitudes.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to chandelles
b) Selects as altitude that will allow the maneuver to be performed no lower than 1,500 AGL
c) Establishes the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed
d) Establishes the angle of bank at approximately 30o
e) Simultaneously applies full power and pitch to maintain a smooth coordinated climbing turn to the
90o point with a constant bank
f) Begins a coordinated constant rate rollout from the 90o point to the 180o point maintaining power
and a constant pitch attitude
g) Completes rollout at the 180o point, 10. Maintains airspeed just
above stall airspeed, and maintaining the airspeed momentarily avoiding a stall
h) Resumes straight and level flight with minimum loss of altitude
a) Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Initial pitch up attitude to quick resulting in the aircraft approaching stall speed before 180 of
direction change has occurred
Initial pitch up attitude too slow resulting in completion of maneuver at an airspeed well above
the stall speed
109
CFI Notebook
Initial bank angle exceeded resulting in completion of maneuver at an airspeed well above the
stall speed
Initail bank angle too shallow resulting in the aircraft approaching stall speed before 180 of
direction change has occurred
Failure to add full power at the start of maneuver
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls not using enough rudder to compensate for torque effect
c) Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
d) Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
Not maintaining appropriate bank angles during the maneuver
Not maintaining appropriate pitch attitudes during the maneuver
Not planning ahead
e) A stall during the maneuver
Usually occurs in the last 90 of the turn due to poor planning
At the completion of the maneuver the airspeed should be just above the stall speed
f) Excessive deviation from desired heading during the completion allowing the heading to drift due to
lack of torque correction
110
CFI Notebook
Chandelle
Objective: To develop pilot's coordination, orientation, planning, and feel for maximum performance flight
and develop positive control techniques at varying airspeeds and altitudes.
Note: Maneuver must be conducted above 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Miture: AS REQD
4. Prop: 2300 RPM
5. Man Press: 14" - 16"
6. Airspeed: 90kts
7. Select prominent reference points
8. Roll into 30 degree bank
9. Simultaneously:
-Maintainbank angle
-Begin increasing pitch
-Increase power to climb power
10. At 90 degree point:
-Maintain pitch
-Begin roll out
11. At 180 degree point:
-Complete roll out
-Maintain pitch
-Airspeed: Just above stall
12. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Airspeed: just above stall
Altitude: Minimum loss during recovery
Heading: 10o at the 180o point
111
CFI Notebook
To develop the pilots feel for varying control forces, and the ability to plan and remain oriented while
maneuvering the airplane with positive, accurate control.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to lazy eights
b) Selects an altitude that will allow the task to be performed no lower than 1,500 AGL
c) Establishes the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed.
d) Maintains coordinated flight through the maneuver
e) Achieves the following throughout the maneuver
Approximately 30o at the steepest point
Constant change of pitch and roll rate
Altitude tolerance at 180o points, 10 feet from entry altitude
Airspeed tolerance at 180o point, 10 knots from entry airspeed
Heading tolerance at the 180o point, 10o
f) continues the maneuver though the number of symmetrical loops specified and resumes straight and
level flight
a) Poor selection of reference points
Not selecting a reference point that is readily seen
Picking a reference point that is too close
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Not correcting for torque effect
112
CFI Notebook
Due to decreased airspeed, considerable right rudder pressure must be gradually applied to
counteract torque at the top of the eight in both right and left turns
More right rudder pressure will be required during the climbing turn to the right than to the left
because more torque correction is needed to prevent yaw from decreasing the rate of turn
In the left climbing turn the torque will tend to contribute to the turn consequently less rudder
pressure is needed
c) Non symmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
Initial pitch attitude too quickly in the climbing turn resulting in the airplane stalling before
reaching the 90o point
Initial pitch attitude too slow in the climbing turn resulting in the airplane reaching the 90o point
without attaining the minimum airspeed
Initial bank angle excessive resulting in the airplane reaching the 90o point before minimum
airspeed is reached
Allowing the pitch attitude in the last 90o of turn to become excessively low resulting in
exceeding the initial entry airspeed and/or altitude
d) Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points not planning ahead
e) Loss of orientation
Poorly selected reference point not readily seen
Student not looking outside enough; poor division of attention
f) Excessive deviation from reference points not planning ahead
113
CFI Notebook
Lazy Eight
Objective: To develop pilot's feel for varying control forces, and the ability to plan and remain oriented while
maneuvering the airplane with positive, accurate control.
NOTE: Maneuver must be conducted above 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Mixture: AS REQD
4. Prop: 2400 RPM
5. Man Press: 14" - 16"
6. Airspeed: 90kts
7. Select prominent reference points
8. Begin gradual climbing turn to reach max putch attitude at 45 degree point with approx 15 degrees bank
9. At the 45 degree point:
-Max pitch, beginning to decrease
-Bank 15 degrees, continuing to increase
10. At the 90 degree point:
PTS Standards
-Pitch attitude passing level flight
Commercial:
-Maximum bank (approx 30 degrees) and decreasing
At 180o points:
11. At the 135 degree point:
Airspeed: 10kts
-Lowest pitch attitude, beginning to increase
Altitude: 100ft
-Bank (approx 15 degrees) continuing to decrease
Heading: 10o
12. At the 180 degree point:
Constant change of pitch and roll
-Straight-and-level
-Airspeed and altitude same as entry
13. Repeat in opposite direction.
114
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations X
Ground Reference Maneuvers
110
113
116
119
115
CFI Notebook
Develop division of attention between the flight path and ground references, while controlling the
airplane at low altitudes and watching for aircraft in the vicinity. To develop recognition of drift toward
or away from a line parallel to the intended ground track.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to rectangular course
b) Selects a suitable reference area
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter a left or right pattern, 600 1,000 feet AGL at an appropriate
distance from the selected reference area, 45 to the downwind leg
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction during straight and turning flight to maintain a constant
ground track around the rectangular reference area
e) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
f) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed 10knots
CFI Notebook
117
CFI Notebook
Rectangular Course
Objective: To maintain a uniform ground track around a rectangular area using visual ground references,
correcting for wind and maintaining altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
PTS Standards
2. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
Private:
3. Props: 2200 RPM
Altitude: 100ft
4. Man Press: 17" - 20"
Airspeed: At/below VA and 10kts
5. Entry:
-45 degrees to downwind
-Approx 1/2 to 1/4 mile from reference point
-At 600 - 1000 AGL
6. Apply wind correction as necessary to maintain specified distance from field boundary
7. Begin the turn to the next leg abeam the reference point
8. Complete roll-out:
-Constant distance from reference point
-Appropriate crab and bank angles
9. Exit maneuver on the downwind
118
CFI Notebook
To develop the ability to compensate for wind drift during turns, orient the flightpath with ground
references, and divide the pilots attention while controlling the airplane at a relatively low altitude.
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to S Turns
b) Selects a suitable ground reference line
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600 1,000 feet AGL, perpendicular to the selected reference line
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction to track a constant radius turn on each side of the selected
reference line
e) Reverses the direction of turn directly over the selected reference line
f) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
g) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed 10 knots.
a) Faulty entry technique
Entering upwind
Not clearing the area
Entering at an improper altitude
b) Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention:
Appropriate bank angles used too soon or too late due to lack of planning
Forgets wind direction in relation to location
Not dividing attention inside and outside equally
c) Uncoordinated flight control application. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in
uncoordinated turns
d) Improper correction for wind drift:
119
CFI Notebook
120
CFI Notebook
Objective: To maintain a uniform S-Shaped path across a road while correcting for wind drift and
maintaing altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
3. Props: 2200 RPM
4. Man Press: 17" - 20"
5. Select a straight line on the ground (road, fence, etc) perpendicular to the wind
6. Entry:
-Downwind at a 90 degree angle to the reference line with the lateral axis perpendicular
7. Immediately begin the turn when directly over reference line
8. Adjust bank to complete 180 degree turn at 90 degree angle to the road
9. Immediately roll into a turn in the opposite direction to complete 180 degree turn on other side
10. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
PTS Standards
Private:
Altitude: 100ft
Airspeed: 10kts
121
CFI Notebook
To develop the ability to subconsciously control the at a relatively low altitudes, dividing attention
between the flight path and ground references, and watching for other air traffic in the vicinity
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to Turns around a point
b) Selects a suitable ground reference point
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600 1,000 feet AGL, at an appropriate distance from the
reference point
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction to track a constant radius turn around the selected reference
point
e) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
f) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed, 10 knots
CFI Notebook
Appropriate bank angles used too soon or too late due to lack of planning
Forgets wind direction in relation to location
Not dividing attention inside and outside equally
c) Uncoordinated flight control application. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in
uncoordinated turns
d) Improper correction for wind drift:
Forgetting where wind is in relation to the airplane;
Not sure when to use steep and shallow bank angles
e) Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting
in a loss or gain in altitude/airspeed
f) Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance not planning ahead
123
CFI Notebook
Objective: To maintain a uniform circular ground track around a point while correcting for wind drift
and maintaining altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Altitude: 600 - 1000 AGL
PTS Standards
3. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
Private:
4. Props: 2200 RPM
Altitude: 100ft
5. Man Press: 17" - 20"
Airspeed: At/below VA and 10kts
6. Entry:
-Downwind, 1/2 to 1/4 mile away from reference point
7. Begin turn when directly abeam the point
8. Adjust bank angle to maintian constant radius around the reference point
9. Complete two full turns
10. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
124
CFI Notebook
To develop the ability to maneuver the airplane while dividing attention between the flight path and
maintaining a pivotal position on selected pylons on the ground
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to eights on pylons
b) Determines the approximate pivotal altitude
c) Selects suitable pylons that will permit straight and level flight between pylons
d) Enters the maneuver at the appropriate altitude and airspeed and at a bank angle of approximately
30o to 40o at the steepest point
e) Applies the necessary corrections so that the line of sight reference line remain on the pylon
125
CFI Notebook
f) divides attention between accurate coordination airplane control and outside references
g) Holds pylon using appropriate pivotal altitude avoiding slips and skids
Common
Errors:
126
CFI Notebook
Eights on Pylons
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Altitude: 100ft
Airspeed: 10kts
127
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations XI
Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins
128
123
125
128
131
133
135
137
140
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
to develop the pilots sense of feel and ability to use the controls correctly, and to improve proficiency in
performing maneuvers in which very low airspeeds are required. Pilots must develop this awareness in
order to avoid stalls in airplanes they may fly at slower airspeeds such as in takeoff, climb, and landing
approach.
Procedure:
Recovery:
1. Apply full power, and apply forward pressure to keep the nose from pitching up
2. Reduce flaps 10o at a time
3. Maintain heading and altitude
4. Accelerate at altitude and retract landing gear and any remaining flaps
5. Retrim the airplane
Standards:
Common
Errors:
CFI Notebook
h) Unintentional stalls
Not recognizing imminent stall conditions
Over controlling the aircraft resulting in a stall
i)
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle during maneuver
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Objective: To demonstrate ability to fly at minimum controllable airspeed while maintaining heading,
altitude, and coordination.
NOTE: Maneuver must be performed at an altitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cow Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing turns:
-First turn: Gear Down, 3 GREEN
-Second turn: FLAPS DOWN
-Establish airspeed at which any increase in pitch or reduction in power would result in stall
6. Prop: 2300 RPM
7: Pitch for airspeed, Power for altitude
8: Max bank: 20 degrees
PTS Standards
Recovery
Private:
1. Throttle: FULL
Altitude: 100ft
2. Pitch: Adjust to maintain airspeed
Heading:
10o
3. Carb Heat: OFF
Airspeed: -0kts, +10kts
4. Flaps 30: Maintain Altitude
Bank:
10o
5. 64 kts: Flaps 20
Commercial:
6. Landing Gear: RETRACT
Altitude: 50ft
7. 70 kts: Flaps UP
Heading: 10o
8. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
Airspeed: +5kts, -0kts
Bank: 5o
130
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
To familiarize pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to assist in recognizing a takeoff and
departure stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action
Procedure:
Recovery:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge related to power on stalls
b) Selects an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than 1,500ft. AGL
c) Establishes takeoff and departure configuration
d) Transitions smoothly from takeoff or departure attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a stall
e) Maintains specified heading 5 (10 for private) in straight and level flight, maintains a specified
angle of bank, not to exceed a 20, 10, in turning flight while inducing the stall
f) Recognizes and recovers promptly as the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack,
increasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straight and level flight
attitude, with a minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the plane
g) Returns to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the examiner
131
CFI Notebook
Increasing the pitch attitude too much, too quickly, resulting in an excessively steep nose up
attitude and un unrealistic situation
c) Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical takeoff and departure airspeed
Increasing the pitch attitude too much, too quickly, resulting in an excessively steep nose up
attitude and an unrealistic situation
Not maintaining the specified bank angle
d) Rough or uncoordinated control technique
Not using rudder to assist in maintaining initial directional control
All aileron and no rudder will only aggravate the situation, especially before the wings have had
time to regain sufficient airflow
e) Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall not recognizing initial buffeting and control
ineffectiveness
f) Failure to achieve a stall. Not increasing pitch attitude high enough to induce a stall or initiating
recovery before stall occurs
g) Improper torque correction not correcting for torque with right rudder
h) Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery not reducing back pressure after stall has occurred
i) Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery pitch attitude is reduced to an excessive
nose down attitude or is maintained in a nose down attitude longer than necessary
j) Secondary stall during recovery student hastens recovery by increasing pitch attitude too quickly
132
CFI Notebook
Power-On Stall
Objective: To recognize the indications of a stall with full power, in takeoff configuration and proceed
with prompt, accurate recovery with minimum loss of altitude.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 12"
5. Clearing Turns
6. Establish Takeoff Configuration
-Airspeed: 50kts
-Man Press: 20" (65 percent power)
-Carb Heat: OFF
7. Throttle: FULL
8 Carb Heat: OFF
9. Bank: 0-20 degrees
10: Pitch:
-Increase to nose-high attitude (10-20 degrees)
-Maintain attitude until stall occurs
Recovery:
1. Pitch: DECREASE to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Pitch for positive rate
4. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
133
PTS Standards
Private:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 0o-20o, 10o
Level Off
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 20o, 10o
Resume Climb
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
To familiarize pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to assist in recognizing a approach and
landing stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action
Procedure:
Recovery:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge related to power off stalls
b) Selects an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than 1,500ft. AGL
c) Establishes a stabilized descent in approach or landing configuration, as specified by the examiner
d) Transitions smoothly from approach or landing attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a stall
e) Maintains a specified heading, 10 in straight and level flight; maintains a specified angle of bank,
not to exceed 20, 5, in turning flight while inducing the stall. (Private standards are 10 from the
specified heading, bank not exceeded by more than 20, and 10 in turning flight)
f) Recognizes and recovers promptly as the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack,
increasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straight and level flight
attitude with minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane
g) Retracts the flaps to the recommended setting, retracts the landing gear if retractable after a positive
rate of climb is established
h) Accelerates to VX or VY speed before final flap retraction, returns to the altitude and airspeed
specified by the examiner
134
CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
b) Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical approach and landing airspeed
Increasing the pitch attitude too much, too quickly, resulting in an excessively steep nose up
attitude and un unrealistic situation
Not maintaining the specified bank angle
c) Rough or uncoordinated control technique
Not using rudder to assist in maintaining initial directional control
All Aileron and no rudder will only aggravate the situation, especially before the wings have had
time to regain sufficient airflow
d) Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall not recognizing initial buffeting and control
ineffectiveness
e) Failure to achieve a stall. Not increasing pitch attitude high enough to induce a stall or initiating
recovery before stall occurs
f) Improper torque correction not correcting for torque with right rudder
g) Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery not reducing back pressure after stall has occurred
h) Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery pitch attitude is reduced to an
excessive nose down attitude or is maintained in a nose down attitude longer than necessary
i) Secondary stall during recovery student hastens recovery by increasing pitch attitude too quickly
135
CFI Notebook
Power-Off Stall
Objective: To recognize the indication of a stall in landing configuration and proceed with prompt,
accurate recovery with minimum loss of altitude.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
-First Turn: GEAR DOWN, 3 GREEN
-Second Turn: FLAPS DOWN
6. Prop: FULL (Below 90kts)
7. Trim for approach speed (70kts)
8. Man Press: IDLE
9. Establish stabilized descent
10. Pitch:
-Increase to approx 5-15 degrees to induce stall
Recovery:
1. Pitch: decrease to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Pitch for positive rate
5. 64kts: Flaps 20
6. Landing Gear: UP
7. 70kts: Flaps UP
8. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
136
PTS Standards
Private:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 10o
Level Off
Commercial:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 5o
Initiate go-around
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Show the effect of improper control technique and emphasizes the importance of using coordinated
control pressures while making turns
Procedure:
Recovery:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of crossed control stalls, with landing
gear extended, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of crossed control stalls
b) Effects of crossed controls in gliding or reduced airspeed descending turns
c) Flight situations where unintentional crossed control stalls may occur
d) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude
e) Recognition of crossed control stalls
f) Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
b) Failure to establish a cross control turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the
hazards of a cross controlled stall
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical approach airspeed
Not increasing crossed control pressures enough to induce a stall
Not increasing back elevator pressure enough to induce a stall
137
CFI Notebook
c) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a cross controlled
stall
d) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of a crossed
control condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition. Not explaining the what, why, and how
of crossed control stalls adequately
Objective: To show the effect of improper control technique and to emphasize the importance of
using coordinated control pressures when making turns.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 2000 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
-First Turn: GEAR DOWN, 3 GREEN
6. Prop: FULL
7. Trip for approach speed (70kts)
8. Throttle: IDLE
9. Altitude: MAINTAIN
10. Airspeed: 65kts (Vglide)
11. Bank: 30 degrees
12. Apply excessive rudder in direction of the turn
13. Aileron: as necessary to maintian bank angle
14. Elevator: increase back pressure until stall occurs
Recovery
1. Release all control pressures, pitch down
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Landing Gear: UP
5. Pitch for positive rate
6. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
138
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
Min loss of altitude
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, and
maintaining positive control of the airplane to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and timely
trim techniques
Procedure:
Recovery:
1. When Stall is imminent, forward pressure must be applied and return the airplane to normal climbing
attitude
2. Adjust trim
3. return to cruise flight
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of elevator trim stalls, with landing gear
extended, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of elevator trim stalls
b) Hazards of inadequate control pressures to compensate for thrust, torque, and up elevator trim
during go around and other related maneuvers
c) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude
d) Recognition of elevator trim stalls
e) Importance of recovering from an elevator trim stall immediately upon recognition
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up elevator trim during go around and other maneuvers. Not explaining the
what, why, and how of elevator trim stalls adequately
b) Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
c) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from an elevator trim stall
Not allowing the pitch attitude to increase above the normal climbing attitude
139
CFI Notebook
Objective: To show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcome strong trim
forces, maintain positive control of the airplane, maintain safe flight altitudes, and use proper
and timely trim techniques
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 2000 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
-First Turn: GEAR DOWN, 3 GREEN
-Second Turn: Flaps FULL
6. Prop: FULL (Below 90kts)
7. Trip for approach speed (65kts)
8. Throttle: FULL
9. Carb Heat: OFF
10. No control inputs
Recovery
1. Pitch: decrease to normal climb attitude
2. Trim for climb
3. Immediately: Flaps 30
4. 64kts: Flaps 20
5. Landing Gear: UP
6. 70kts: Flaps UP
7. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
Imminent stall, min loss of altitude
140
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Procedure:
Secondary Stalls can be demonstrated during the recovery phase of any the basic stalls. The secondary
stall can be induced by simply pulling the nose up more rapidly than necessary during the recovery from
a full stall.
Recovery:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of secondary stalls, in selected flap and
landing gear configuration, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of secondary stalls
b) Flight situations where secondary stalls may occur
c) Hazards of secondary stalls during normal stall or spin recovery
d) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude
e) Recognition of secondary stalls
f) Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude
141
CFI Notebook
Secondary Stall
Objective: To demonstrate improper stall recovery technique and show importance of reducing angle of
attack by lowering pitch attitude and regaining proper airspeed upon recovery.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 2000 AGL
Sequence:
1. Clearing Turns
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Mixture: AS REQD
4. Carb Heat: ON
5. Man Press: 15"
6. Clearing Turns:
-First Turn: GEAR DOWN, 3 GREEN
-Second Turn: Flaps FULL
7. Prop: FULL
8. Throttle: IDLE
9. Establish stable descent at 70kts
10. Increase pitch until aircraft stalls
1st Recovery
1. Release all control pressures
2. Throttle: FULL POWER
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Continue increasing pitch until 2nd stall
2nd Recovery
1. Pitch down to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Flaps: UP
5. Landing Gear: UP
6. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
Min loss of altitude
142
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Learn the cause of a spin and the proper techniques to prevent and/or recover from the spin, mental
anxiety, and many causes of unintentional spins may be removed.
Procedure:
Recovery:
1. Close throttle
2. Neutralize ailerons
3. Apply full opposite rudder
4. Briskly move the elevator forward to approximately the neutral position
5. Once stall is broken the spinning will stop. Neutralize the rudder when spinning stops
6. When rudder is neutralized, gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to level flight
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of spins by describing the:
a) Anxiety factors associated with spin instruction
b) Aerodynamics of spins
c) Airplanes approved for the spin maneuver based on airworthiness category and type certificate
d) Relationship of various factors such as configuration, weight, center of gravity, and control
coordination to spins
e) Flight situations where unintentional spins may occur
f) How to recognize and recover from imminent, unintentional spins
g) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude for intentional spins
h) Control procedure to maintain a stabilized spin
i) Orientation during a spin
j) Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude for intentional spins
Common
143
CFI Notebook
Errors:
a) Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry. For establishing configuration
recommended by manufacturer for intentional spins
b) Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry. Not maintaining elevator back pressure
after entering the spin resulting in a steep spiral
c) Failure to close throttle when a spin is achieved. Not closing throttle resulting in excessive loss of
altitude
d) Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin. Uncoordinated flight
combined with a fully stalled condition and use of incorrect aileron and rudder application for recovery
are contributing factors to unintentional spins
e) Improper use of flight controls during entry, rotation or recovery
During entry not applying full rudder in direction of spin
During rotation not applying full elevator back pressure, full rudder and neutralized ailerons
During recovery, not applying full opposite rudder to stop rotation
Not applying sufficient forward elevator to break the stalled condition
Not using coordinated flight controls during recovery
f) Disorientation during a spin. Loss of orientation with the outside reference point used to determine
the number of rotations
g) Failure to distinguish between a high speed spiral and a spin. Not recognizing a high airspeed
(increasing), high rate of descent (increasing), steep spiral condition; the nose of aircraft will not be as
low in a steep spiral
h) Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
After spin recovery, being too cautious in pulling out of dive resulting in excessive airspeed
Applying too much back pressure when recovering, resulting in secondary stall
i) Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
Not using correct recovery procedures
Hesitation in applying necessary control applications
j) Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins assuming all airplanes are
capable of recovery from intentional spins
144
CFI Notebook
Spins
Sequence:
1. Power: IDLE
2. Ailerons: NEUTRAL
3. Rudder: OPPOSITE direction of rotation
4. Elevator: FORWARD
5. Hold control inputs until rotation stops
6. As rotation stops, neutralize rudder and make a smooth recovery from the resulting dive
145
CFI Notebook
Objectives:
Procedure:
Schedule:
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
146
CFI Notebook
Objective: To demonstrate that an aircraft will stall at a higher than published indicated stall speed
when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed on the aircraft.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 2000 AGL
Sequence:
PTS Standards
1. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
Commercial:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
Heading: 5o
3. Clearing Turns
Bank: 10o
4. Prop: FULL
Min loss of altitude
5. Altitude: MAINTAIN
6. Airspeed: 70kts
7. Power: 1800 RPM
8. Enter 45o bank
9: Increase pitch while applying rudder into the direction of turn and aileron opposite the turn
Recovery:
1. Release all control pressures
2. Simultaneously:
-Stop turn, level wings, pitch down to break stall
-Throttle: FULL
-Carb Heat: OFF
3. Pitch for positive rate
4. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
147
CFI Notebook
148
143
145
147
149
151
CFI Notebook
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor'
s Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper scanning techniques, trim procedure, how
to control pitch, power, and airspeed.
Students
Actions:
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
149
CFI Notebook
150
CFI Notebook
Objectives: Demonstrate straight and turning constant airspeed climbs solely by reference to instruments.
Procedure: 1. Perform clearing turns and make a traffic call
2. Establish an approximate attitude for the desired climb speed and set climb power
3. Trim to relieve control pressures
4. Crosscheck instruments
5. Adjust for any trends and re-trim
6. Level off by simultaneously reducing power and relieving elevator pressure
7. Crosscheck instruments
8. Re-trim for level flight
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper scanning techniques, trim procedure, how
to control pitch, power, and airspeed.
Students
Actions:
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
151
CFI Notebook
152
CFI Notebook
Objectives: Demonstrate straight and turning constant airspeed descents solely by reference to instruments.
Procedure: 1. Perform clearing turns and make a traffic call
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper scanning techniques, trim procedure, how
to control pitch, power, and airspeed.
Students
Actions:
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
153
CFI Notebook
154
CFI Notebook
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper scanning techniques, trim procedure, how
to control pitch, power, and airspeed.
Students
Actions:
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
155
CFI Notebook
150
Maddox
CFI Notebook
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
151
Maddox
CFI Notebook
152
Maddox
CFI Notebook
Maddox
153
154
155
CFI Notebook
Objectives: Demonstrate proper planning, orientation, division of attention, control feel and
emergency procedures for a power-off approach and landing.
Procedure: 1. Perform clearing turns and make a traffic call
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
154
Maddox
CFI Notebook
Schedule:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
155
Maddox
2.
3.
4.
5.
Parking Procedures
a. The pilot should park the plane in a designated parking area if available.
b. If there is no designated parking area, the airplane should be positioned away
from a movement area or anywhere where other airplanes wont be able to strike
the plane.
c. Straighten the nose-wheel before coming to a stop.
Engine Shutdown
a. Use the procedures in the checklist provided by the manufacturer in the POH.
b. Some basic important items are:
i. Parking brake Set
ii. Throttle Set to idle or 1000 rpm
iii. Magneto ground check
iv. Set propeller controls full forward
v. All electrical equipment Off
vi. Mixture Idle cut-off
vii. Magnetos Off
viii. All switches Off
ix. Set control lock
Deplaning passengers
a. Depending on the seating arrangement in the aircraft, passengers should be
briefed on exiting procedures.
Securing Aircraft
a. After everyone has exited the airplane, the pilot should secure the airplane by
doing the following:
i. Closing all doors and windows
ii. Tie down the aircraft
iii. Check fuel and oil levels
Postflight walk-around
a. The pilot should check the general condition of the aircraft after every flight and
report any discrepancies to maintenance personnel.
Appendix I
Appendix 1
Runway Incursion
Avoidance
Introduction
Runway safety is a significant challenge and a top priority
for everyone in aviation. In the United States, an average of
three runway incursions occur daily. Each of these incidents
have the potential to cause significant damage to both persons
and property. Runway incursions are a serious safety concern
and have involved air carrier aircraft, military aircraft, general
aviation (GA), and pedestrian vehicles. [Figure 1-1] Several
runway incursions have resulted in collisions and fatalities.
Fatalities have occurred at both towered and nontowered
airports. A few seconds of inattention can cause a runway
incursion.
1-1
Figure 1-1. Runway incursions are a top FAA safety concern that
Taxi procedures
Communications
1-2
36
Figure 1-2. Heads-up, eyes outside.
Runway Confusion
Runway confusion is a subset of runway incursions and
often results in you unintentionally taking off or landing on
a taxiway or wrong runway. Generally, you are unaware of
the mistake until after it has occurred.
In August 2006, the flight crew of a commercial regional jet
was cleared for takeoff on Runway 22 but mistakenly lined
up and departed on Runway 26, a much shorter runway. As
a result, the aircraft crashed off the end of the runway.
Airport complexity
1-3
movement safer.
1-4
Airport Diagram
It is essential to have a current airport diagram available for
the departure airport, as well as the arrival airport for safe
operations. [Figure 1-6] In the back section of each A/FD
volume are full page airport diagrams that can help you plan
surface operations. Time should be taken to study the airport
diagram and anticipated taxi routes based on the information
provided from the ATIS and NOTAMs.
fo
5 APR 2012
eu
se
d
9 FEB 2012
No
tt
ob
to 0901Z
Effective 0901Z
rn
av
iga
tio
n
AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY
SOUTH CENTRAL U.S.
You should not take for granted that the anticipated taxi
route will be the same taxi route received from ATC, which
is why it is so important to write down and read back the taxi
clearance from ATC. Current airport diagrams are available
for download at www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/
diagrams.
Hot Spots
An airport hot spot is typically a complex or confusing
taxiway/taxiway or taxiway/runway intersection. This area
of increased risk has either a history of, or potential for,
runway incursions or surface incidents due to a variety of
causes including airport layout, traffic flow, airport marking,
signage, and lighting.
Taxi Procedures
1-5
HOT SPOTS
PHOENIX DEER VALLEY (DVT)
No
t to
be
us
ed
for
na
vig
ati
on
Figure 1-9. Low sun angle is obscuring the runway holding position
sign and marking at a taxiway/runway intersection.
Figure 1-7. Airport diagram for Phoenix Deer Valley (DVT),
Phoenix, Arizona showing where the hot spots are located on
the airport.
1-6
ATC Instructions
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14CFR) part
91, section 91.123 requires you to follow all ATC clearances
and instructions. Request clarification if you are unsure of the
clearance or instruction to be followed. If you are unfamiliar
with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, ask ATC for a
progressive taxi. Progressive taxi requires the controller
to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.
1-7
1-8
Pilot
Ground, November 1234
ready to taxi from the GA
ramp with Bravo.
ATC
November 1234,
Runway 27, taxi via
Alpha, hold short
Runway 31.
Pilot
November 1234,
Runway 27, taxi via
Alpha, hold short
Runway 31.
ATC
Aircraft Lights
The use of aircraft exterior lights during all flight operations
make an aircraft operating on the airport surface more
conspicuous and help convey location and intent to you and
ATC. Some examples of aircraft exterior light usage are listed
below and shown in Figure 1-16.
Standardized Aircraft Lighting
Turn on
Landing lights
Logo lights
Taxi lights
Strobe light*
After landing, use the utmost caution where the exit taxiways
intersect another runway, and do not exit onto another runway
without ATC authorization. Do not accept last minute
turnoff instructions from the control tower unless you clearly
understand the instructions and are at a speed that ensures you
can safely comply. Finally, after landing and upon exiting
the runway, ensure your aircraft has completely crossed over
the runway hold markings. Once all parts of the aircraft have
crossed the runway holding position markings, you must hold
unless further instructions have been issued by ATC. Do not
initiate non-essential communications or actions until the
aircraft has stopped and the brakes set.
Navigation/Position lights
Rotating beacon
Engine(s) running
Taxiing
Crossing a runway
Entering departure runway for
line up and wait
Takeoff
* Strobe lights should not be illuminated if doing so will have an
adverse effect on other aircraft or vehicles.
Figure 1-16. Standard aircraft lighting.
1-9
Nontowered Airports
Many GA airports, even those with operating ATC towers,
may not have airport signage and markings that are required
at airports certificated by the FAA. In fact, you may observe
a wide range of airport signage and markings from one GA
airport to the next.
There is no substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an
airport. It is essential that pilots be alert and look for other
traffic and exchange traffic information when approaching
or departing an airport without an operating control tower.
This is of particular importance since other aircraft may not
have communication capability or, in some cases, pilots may
not communicate their presence or intentions when operating
into or out of such airports. To achieve the greatest degree of
safety, it is essential that all radio-equipped aircraft transmit/
receive on a common frequency identified for the purpose
of airport advisories.
An airport may have a full or part-time tower or Flight
Service Station (FSS) located on the airport, a full or parttime UNICOM station, or no aeronautical station at all. There
are three ways for pilots to communicate their intention and
obtain airport/traffic information when operating at an airport
that does not have an operating tower: by communicating
with an FSS, a UNICOM operator, or by making a selfannounced broadcast.
Many airports are now providing completely automated
weather, radio check capability, and airport advisory
information on an automated UNICOM system. These
systems offer a variety of features, typically selectable by
microphone clicks, on the UNICOM frequency. Availability
of the automated UNICOM is published in the A/FD and
approach charts.
NOTE: Line up and wait/holding in position is not
recommended at nontowered airports.
1-10
Communications
In order to have safe surface operations, it is imperative
that you maintain good communication with ATC. The
controllers understanding can be enhanced by you responding
appropriately and using standard phraseology. Figure 1-17
shows a detailed glossary of phraseology that is commonly
used in surface operations. Guidelines for clear and accurate
communications include the use of proper communication
procedures when contacting ATC. Your initial transmission
to ATC should contain the following elements:
ACKNOWLEDGE
ADVISE INTENTIONS
AFFIRMATIVE
Yes.
FINAL
HOLD FOR
HOLD SHORT
IMMEDIATELY
NEGATIVE
READ BACK
ROGER
STAND BY
UNABLE
VERIFY
WILCO
WITHOUT DELAY
Landing Clearance
ATC may withhold or rescind a landing clearance when an
aircraft is in line up and wait on the runway.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1-12
No
tt
be
us
ed
fo
rn
av
ig
at
io
n
LAHSO
12-30
12-30
Figure 1-18. (A) Airport diagram of Waterloo Regional Airport (ALO) showing the LAHSO holding position. (B) Intersection of Runway
36 and Runway 12-30 at Waterloo Regional Airport. LAHSO hold markings across Runway 36 are clearly visible along with the two
collocated Runway 12-30 hold signs.
1-13
runways are shown on the sign along with arrows showing the
approximate alignment of each runway. [Figure 1-21A and B]
In addition to showing the approximate runway alignment,
the arrows indicate the direction(s) to the threshold of the
runway whose designation is immediately next to each
corresponding arrow.
This type of taxiway and runway/runway intersection
geometry can be very confusing and create navigational
challenges. Extreme caution must be exercised when taxiing
onto or crossing this type of intersection. Figure 1-21A and B
shows a depiction of a taxiway, runway/runway intersection
and is also designated as a hot spot on the airport diagram.
In the example, Taxiway Bravo intersects with two runways,
31-13 and 35-17, which cross each other.
1-14
io
n
at
Runway 13
31-13
35-17
31-13
No
t
to
be
us
ed
fo
35-17
rn
av
ig
3
5
Runway 31
Figure 1-21. (A) Taxiway Bravo location sign collocated with runway/runway intersection holding signs at Sioux Gateway Airport (SUX)
(B) Airport diagram of Sioux Gateway Airport (SUX), Sioux City, Iowa. The area outlined in red is a designated hot spot (HS1).
1-15
1-16
Figure 1-26. (A) Elevated flashing yellow runway guard lights also
referred to as wig-wag lights. (B) In-pavement flashing yellow
runway guard lights.
Figure 1-27. Runway safety area boundary sign and marking located
on Taxiway Kilo.
1-17
Figure 1-28. Runway holding position sign and marking for LAHSO.
1-18
30
36
30
36-1
8
30-1
2
A
Figure 1-32. Surface painted taxiway direction signs.
Figure 1-30. Surface painted Taxiway Alpha location sign.
1-19
F
B
Figure 1-33. (A) Orientation of signs is from left to right in a clockwise manner. Left turn signs are on the left and right turn on the
right. In this view, the pilot is on taxiway Bravo. (B) Direction sign array at a complex taxiway/taxiway intersection.
Destination Signs
Destination signs have black characters on a yellow
background indicating a destination at the airport. These
signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxi
route to that destination. [Figure 1-34] When the arrow on
the destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior
to the intersection. Destinations commonly shown on these
types of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military
1-20
1-21
Taxiway Alpha.
1-22
B
G
35
L
1-24
35
C
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Advisory
Circular
Date: 1/6/14
Initiated by: AFS-200
AC No: 61-65E
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This revision provides guidance for those persons seeking an airline transport
pilot (ATP) certificate with an airplane category and a multiengine class rating.
2. PRINICIPAL CHANGES. This change incorporates changes and updates to AC 61-65E.
It contains revised information to include ATP knowledge test requirements and new ATP
endorsement examples. Information regarding who you may contact with questions regarding
information in this AC, and where you may obtain a copy, are also included.
PAGE CHANGE CONTROL CHART
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1/6/14
Advisory
Circular
Date: 11/29/05
Initiated by: AFS-800
AC No: 61-65E
This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors, ground instructors,
and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and other requirements
in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61. This revision provides
guidance for those persons seeking sport pilot certification.
1/6/14
AC 61-65E CHG 1
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
1. Purpose...................................................................................................................................1
2. Cancellation ..........................................................................................................................1
3. Related Reading Material (Current Editions) ........................................................................1
4. Pilot Training and Testing .....................................................................................................1
5. Knowledge Tests ....................................................................................................................2
6. Completion of Ground Training or a Home Study Curriculum .............................................2
7. Evidence of Identity and Age ................................................................................................3
8. Practical Tests ........................................................................................................................4
9. Light-Sport Aircraft with a Single Pilot Station ....................................................................4
10. Prerequisites for Practical Tests ...........................................................................................5
11. Student Pilot Certification....................................................................................................6
12. Presolo Requirements ..........................................................................................................7
13. Additional Solo Privileges ...................................................................................................7
14. Sport Pilot Certification .......................................................................................................9
15. Recreational Pilot Certification..........................................................................................10
16. Private Pilot Certification ..................................................................................................10
17. Commercial Pilot Certification ..........................................................................................11
18. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification .......................................................................11
19. Flight Instructors Other Than Flight Instructors with a Sport Pilot Rating .......................12
20. Flight Instructors with a Sport Pilot Rating .......................................................................13
21. Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificates (Except Those with a Sport Pilot Rating) ...........14
22. Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificates (With a Sport Pilot Rating) .................................15
23. Renewal of a Flight Instructor Certificate .........................................................................15
24. Expired Flight Instructor Certificate ..................................................................................17
25. Instrument Rating...............................................................................................................17
26. Additional Aircraft Ratings (Other than ATP) ..................................................................17
27. Additional Category/Class Rating at the ATP Certification Level ....................................18
28. Other Instructor Endorsements ..........................................................................................18
29. Ground Instructor Certification..........................................................................................19
30. Authorized Instructors .......................................................................................................19
31. Additional Training for Gliders .........................................................................................19
32. How to Obtain Electronically ............................................................................................20
APPENDIX 1. CONTENTSINSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS (17 PAGES) ...................1
11/29/05
AC 61-65E
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors,
ground instructors, and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and
other requirements in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61.
2. CANCELLATION. AC 61-65D, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors,
dated September 20, 1999, is canceled.
3.
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
5. KNOWLEDGE TESTS. The knowledge tests for the Sport Pilot Certificate, recreational
pilot certificate, private pilot certificate, commercial pilot certificate, airline transport pilot (ATP)
certificate, flight instructor certificate, ground instructor certificate, and ratings cover the subject
areas in which aeronautical knowledge is required by part 61.
a. Knowledge Test Administration. If required by 61.35(a)(1), an appropriate
knowledge test will only be administered to an applicant who presents acceptable evidence of
completion of the required training.
b. Evidence of Completion. Applicants are not required to show such evidence to take the
ATP, CFI, certificated ground instructor (CGI), military competency, or foreign pilot instrument
knowledge tests unless they are applying to retake a test after failing that test (per 61.49).
However, after July 31, 2014, all persons seeking an ATP certificate with a multiengine class
rating will be required to present a graduation certificate certifying the completion of an ATP
Certification Training Program when applying for the ATP knowledge test.
c. FAA Computerized Knowledge Test Program. The FAA computerized knowledge
test program has been implemented to provide expeditious testing services for applicants at
locations and times convenient to the public. For location of computerized testing centers,
contact the nearest Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) or use the list of computerized
testing centers at http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/media/test_centers.pdf.
6. COMPLETION OF GROUND TRAINING OR A HOME STUDY CURRICULUM.
Ground training courses to prepare for the aeronautical knowledge test may be offered by pilot
schools, colleges, aviation organizations, and individual flight or ground instructors. Home study
curriculums are available from representatives of the aviation industry. Home study curriculums
individually developed by students should be compiled from material described in the applicable
FAA knowledge test guide. The student, to show evidence of a ground school or home study
curriculum completion, may use any one of the following methods.
a. A certificate of graduation from a pilot training course conducted by an
FAA-certificated pilot school, appropriate to the certificate or rating sought, or a statement of
accomplishment from the school certifying satisfactory completion of the ground school portion
of the course;
b. An endorsement from an appropriately rated FAA-certificated ground or flight
instructor who has certified that the applicant has satisfactorily completed the ground training
required for the certificate or rating sought and is prepared for the test;
c. A certificate of graduation or statement of accomplishment from a ground school
course, appropriate to the certificate and rating sought that was conducted by an agency such as a
high school, college, adult education program, the Civil Air Patrol, or a Reserve Officers
Training Corps flight training program;
d. A certificate of graduation from an industry-provided aviation home study course. The
certificate must be developed by the aeronautical enterprise providing the study material. The
certificate of graduation must correspond to the FAA knowledge test for the certificate or rating
sought. The aeronautical enterprise providing the course of study must also supply a
comprehensive knowledge test, which can be scored as evidence that the student has completed
the course of study. The knowledge test must be sent to the course provider for scoring. Upon
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AC 61-65E
Page 3
1/6/14
AC 61-65E CHG 1
show that they will meet the minimum age requirement for the certificate sought within
24 calendar-months of the date of application for the knowledge test, with the exception of those
pilots seeking an ATP certificate with an airplane category and multiengine class rating after
July 31, 2014. An ATP knowledge test report for these applicants certified after July 31, 2014, is
valid for 60 calendar-months. Therefore, the minimum age for an applicant is 18 years of age.
8.
PRACTICAL TESTS.
a. A practical test is conducted to evaluate the applicants knowledge and skill for the pilot
certificate and rating sought. During a practical test, the examiner will quiz the applicant orally
on knowledge elements and ask the applicant to perform the skill elements of the test. However,
oral testing may be used at any time during the practical test. An examiner is responsible for
determining whether the applicant meets the standards outlined in the objectives of each required
task in the appropriate PTS.
b. For elements of a maneuver or procedure on the practical test in which the applicants
are required to be tested orally or by written questions, the PTS uses the words . . . The
applicant exhibits knowledge of . . . or . . . the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of . .
. in the area of each task noted as Objective.
c. For elements of a maneuver or procedure on the practical test in which the applicants
are required to demonstrate their piloting skills, the PTS uses words such as considers situations,
maintains, utilizes, initiates, transitions to, arrives at, establishes and maintains, remains aware,
avoids situations, selects, properly, makes a, recognizes, stops, completes, etc., in the area of
each task noted as Objective.
d. In accordance with 61.45(a), a flight simulator or flight training device may be used
for some elements of the practical test. Authorization and the extent of use of a flight simulator
or flight training device during the practical test is addressed in the appropriate appendix section
of the applicable PTS for the pilot certificate and rating sought.
9.
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AC 61-65E
c. Upon successful completion of the practical test, the limitation will be removed and the
sport pilot is authorized to act as pilot in command (PIC) in all categories of light-sport aircraft
for which he or she has a make and model endorsement within a set of aircraft to operate. The
limitation can also be removed if the sport pilot completes the certification requirements in an
aircraft with a minimum of two places, for a higher certificate or rating.
d. A sport pilot who is issued a certificate with a single-seat limitation must complete a
flight review, as required by 61.56. If the flight review is conducted in an aircraft, it must be in
an aircraft with a minimum of two pilot stations, in which the pilot is rated, and with an
authorized instructor who is current and qualified to act as PIC.
e. An instructor may perform a proficiency check for an additional category or privilege in
accordance with 61.321 to be added to a sport pilot certificate or higher using a single-seat
light-sport aircraft, provided the instructor is also a DPE or an ASI.
f. The instructor or ASI must agree to conduct the practical test in a single-seat light-sport
aircraft and must ensure that the proficiency check is conducted in accordance with the sport
pilot PTS for single-seat aircraft. Knowledge of all tasks applicable to the category or class of
aircraft will be evaluated orally. Those pilots seeking sport pilot privileges in a single-seat
light-sport aircraft must demonstrate competency in those specific tasks identified in the PTS and
any other tasks selected by the instructor.
g. The instructor or ASI must have radio contact and be in a position to observe the
operation of the light-sport aircraft and evaluate the proficiency of the applicant from the ground.
h. On successful completion of proficiency check, the instructor or ASI will issue an
endorsement with the following limitation: No passenger carriage and flight in a single-pilot
station aircraft only (add category/class/make and model) limiting the pilots operations to a
single-seat aircraft in this category, class, make, and model. The instructor must sign this
endorsement with his or her CFI and examiner number.
i. This limitation can be removed by the pilot having successfully completed a proficiency
check involving the additional tasks identified in the PTS in a two-pilot station light-sport
aircraft for the specific category and class rating sought and in accordance with 61.321. The
proficiency check must be conducted in the same category and class of light-sport aircraft. Upon
successful completion of the proficiency check, the pilot will be issued an endorsement for the
light-sport aircraft privilege sought.
j. A recreational pilot or higher, when exercising sport pilot privileges, is required to have
an endorsement for only the category and/or class of light-sport aircraft for which he/she is
authorized to act as PIC. A sport pilot is required to have an endorsement for the category, class,
make, and model within a set of aircraft (see 61.1(b)(14) for the definition of set of aircraft)
in which he/she is authorized to act as PIC.
10. PREREQUISITES FOR PRACTICAL TESTS. Except as provided by 61.39(c), each
applicant must have received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certified that the
applicant received and logged the required flight time/training in preparation for the practical test
within 60 days preceding the date of the test and has been found proficient to pass the practical
test.
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AC 61-65E
NOTE: The endorsement must also state that the applicant has satisfactory
knowledge of the subject areas in which he/she was shown to be deficient by
the FAA airman knowledge test report, if required.
a. All applicants must have the required endorsements specified in part 61 for the aircraft
category, class, rating, or privilege of certification sought.
b. All applicants who reapply for a retest for a practical test must present another
endorsement from their instructor that states the applicant has been given the necessary training
and is prepared for the practical test.
c. A practical test, whether or not satisfactorily completed, uses up the instructors
endorsement for that test. An instructors recommendation on FAA Form 8710-1, Airman
Certificate and/or Rating Application, is required for each retest conducted for a certificate or
rating.
d. Except for a practical test for a sport pilot certificate, flight instructor certificate with a
sport pilot rating, glider category rating, or a balloon class rating, applicants must hold at least a
current third class medical certificate. If the practical test/proficiency check is being
administered in a flight simulator/flight training device, the applicant is not required to hold a
medical certificate (see 61.23(b)(8)).
e. The ability to read, speak, write, and understand the English language is an eligibility
requirement that applies to all pilot certificates, ratings, and privileges. No certificate, rating, or
privilege will be issued if the applicant cannot meet this requirement, except when such inability
to read, speak, write, and understand the English language is due to medical reasons and as
permitted under 61.13(b), and as allowed by other CFR sections.
11. STUDENT PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the student pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart C.
a. A student pilot certificate can be issued by a designated aviation medical examiner as
part of a medical certificate. However, an ASI and DPE can also issue student pilot certificates.
Whenever a student pilot certificate (other than a student pilot seeking a sport pilot certificate) is
issued by an ASI or DPE, the applicant must hold a current medical certificate for performing
solo privileges in an airplane, rotorcraft, powered-lift, weight-shift-control aircraft, powered
parachute, or airship. Glider and balloon student pilots are not required to hold a medical
certificate (see 61.23(b)(3)).
(1) Use the following table to determine how to apply for a student pilot certificate for
applicants other than those seeking a sport pilot certificate:
If
(a) An applicant operates a balloon or glider, or
has a current and valid medical certificate
issued under 14 CFR part 67,
Then
(a) The applicant must apply using FAA
Form 8710-1 with a FSDO or an FAA DPE to
receive a student pilot certificate (FAA
Form 8710-2).
Par 11
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glider, and does not have a current and valid
medical certificate issued under part 67,
AC 61-65E
medical certificate (FAA Form 8420-2, Medical
Certificate _______ Class and Student Pilot
Certificate), with at least a third class medical
certificate issued under part 67 with an FAA
aviation medical examiner.
(2) Use the following table to determine how to apply for a student pilot certificate for
applicants seeking a sport pilot certificate:
If
(a) An applicant operates a balloon or glider, or
has a current and valid medical certificate
issued under part 67, or a current and valid U.S.
drivers license,
Then
(a) The applicant must apply for a student pilot
certificate with a FSDO or an FAA DPE.
b. Additional information on the eligibility requirements for student pilots can be found in
61.83 and the general limitations for student pilots can be found in 61.89.
12. PRESOLO REQUIREMENTS.
a. The 90-day solo endorsement that goes in the student pilots logbook is required
every 90 days for the student to be afforded continuing solo privileges, per 61.87(n).
b. Although 61.19(b) establishes, in a pertinent part, that a student pilot certificate
expires 24 calendar-months from the month in which it is issued, the endorsements on that
student pilot certificate are a matter of record indefinitely. The endorsements are required to be
updated from time-to-time in the student pilots logbook to retain solo privileges.
c. The following pre-solo requirements must be met:
(1) Before being authorized to conduct a solo flight, a student pilot must have
demonstrated satisfactory aeronautical knowledge by completion of a knowledge test (see
61.87(b)). Before being authorized to conduct a solo flight, a student pilot must have received
and logged the flight training required by 61.87(c) and 61.87(d) through 61.87(m), as
appropriate. Satisfactory aeronautical knowledge and an acceptable performance level must have
been demonstrated to an authorized instructor, per 61.87(b).
(2) Prior to solo flight, a student pilot is required to have his or her student pilot
certificate and logbook endorsed for the specific make and model aircraft to be flown.
Thereafter, the student pilots logbook must be endorsed every 90 days to retain solo flight
privileges. These endorsements must be given by an authorized flight instructor who has flown
with the student (per 61.87(p)).
13. ADDITIONAL SOLO PRIVILEGES. The following additional student solo privileges
may be authorized:
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AC 61-65E
NOTE: The student pilot certificate only provides for listing the aircrafts
category for the solo cross-country privilege endorsement. Per 61.93(c)(1),
the solo cross-country endorsement on the student pilot certificate must be
. . . for the specific category of aircraft to be flown. However, per
61.93(c)(2)(i), the solo cross-country endorsement in the student pilots
logbook must be . . . for the specific make and model of aircraft to be
flown.
a. A student pilot may operate an aircraft in solo flight at night provided that student has
received the required flight training at night and the appropriate endorsements as required by
61.87(o). A student pilot seeking a sport pilot certificate is not authorized to operate a
light-sport aircraft at night, per 61.89(c).
(1) A student pilot may operate an aircraft on a solo cross-country flight provided that
student has received the training required by 61.93(e) through 61.93(m), as appropriate, has
demonstrated acceptable skills, abilities, and competency to his/her instructor who then would
endorse the persons student pilot certificate and logbook. Additionally, before each solo
cross-country flight, an instructor must endorse the students logbook.
NOTE: This endorsement does not need to be made by the instructor who
normally provides training to the student.
(2) The instructor who makes the endorsement to authorize this solo cross-country
flight will personally review the students preflight planning and preparation and attest to the
correctness and preparedness of the students cross-country planning under the known
circumstances. The instructor may add limitations to the endorsement to ensure an accurate
written understanding between the student and the instructor to better ensure the safety of the
flight.
b. When an instructor permits his or her student to make a solo cross-country flight, any
solo flight greater than 25 nautical miles (nm) (or 15 nm in the case of a powered parachute)
from the airport from where the flight originated, or make any solo flight and landing at any
location other than the airport of origination, that student must have received the solo
cross-country training and endorsements requirements of 61.93. Additionally, unless there is an
emergency, no student may make a solo flight landing at any point other than the airport where
the student pilot normally receives cross-country training and endorsements of 61.93.
c. A flight instructor may authorize a student to practice solo takeoffs and landings at an
airport within 25 nm (or 15 nm in the case of a powered parachute) from the airport at which the
student pilot is normally receiving training after meeting the requirements of 61.93(b)(1).
d. A student pilot may be authorized to make repeated, specific solo cross-country flights
that are not greater than 50 nm from the point of departure if the student meets the requirements
of 61.93(b)(2). The authorized instructor should specify in the students logbook endorsement,
the conditions under which the flights may be made.
e. A student pilot who seeks a sport pilot certificate or a recreational pilot certificate and
wants to obtain privileges to operate in Class B, C, and D airspace, at an airport located in Class
B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or at an airport having an operational control tower,
must receive and log ground and flight training from an authorized instructor on the aeronautical
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AC 61-65E
knowledge areas listed in 61.94(a) and have received a logbook endorsement in accordance
with 61.94(b).
f. A student pilot may NOT operate an aircraft in solo flight in Class B airspace or on a
solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace unless that student pilot has
received the ground and flight training and instructor endorsements required by 61.95(a) and
61.95(b).
14. SPORT PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the sport pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart J.
a. An applicant for a sport pilot certificate must possess at least a student pilot certificate
that is current and valid.
b. The flight instructor is given discretion in developing a training program to meet the
requirements of 61.309. The regulation spells out the specific minimum aeronautical
experience requirements that must be met.
c. A sport pilot certificate is issued without a specific category or class listed. An
endorsement is required for each category, class, make, and model of light-sport aircraft a sport
pilot is qualified to fly.
d. Sport pilots will require an endorsement to fly at least one make and model of
light-sport aircraft within the same set of aircraft. Once an endorsement is obtained for a specific
make and model of light-sport aircraft, the sport pilot can fly any other make and model in the
same set without any additional endorsements. The FAA has established a list of sets of
light-sport aircraft, which is available online at
http://www.faa.gov/licenses_certificates/airmen_certification/sport_pilot/media/aircraft_sets.pdf.
(See 61.1(b)(14) for the definition of set of aircraft.)
e. An appropriately authorized flight instructor must supervise the training and experience
required in obtaining additional sport pilot privileges. Additional training requirements and
endorsements are established for the following additional privileges:
(1) Category or class of light-sport aircraft (Section 61.321).
(2) Make and model of light-sport aircraft (Section 61.323).
(3) Operate a light-sport aircraft in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in
Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control
tower (Section 61.325).
(4) Operate a light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots (kts) Calibrated
Airspeed (CAS) (Section 61.327).
f. Any pilot exercising sport pilot privileges (and applicants for the certificate) must
understand and comply with all sport pilot privileges and limitations, particularly the applicable
operating limits and endorsement requirements in subpart J. Section 61.303 establishes which
operating limits and endorsement requirements apply to the operation of a light-sport aircraft,
depending on the type of certificate or rating a pilot holds and the medical eligibility
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requirements the pilot meets. For example, a pilot holds a recreational pilot certificate, but not a
medical certificate, and wishes to exercise sport pilot privileges. The pilot must comply with
cross-country requirements in 61.101(c), even if the flight does not exceed 50 nm from the
departure airport (reference 61.303). The pilot must also comply with the additional training
requirements and endorsements established in paragraph 14c. See also paragraph 13.
g. Each pilot exercising sport pilot privileges must carry his or her logbook and other
evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements on all flights. Other evidence of the
required authorized instructor endorsements may be a preprinted card or record that includes the
endorsements. See 61.51(i)(3).
15. RECREATIONAL PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency,
flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the recreational pilot certificate are located
in part 61, subpart D.
a. Section 61.101 contains all limitations that pertain to the recreational pilot certificate
and outlines procedures for obtaining additional certificates or ratings. An appropriately
authorized flight instructor must supervise the training and experience required in furtherance of
a higher level of certificate. Each flight conducted by the recreational pilot under those
provisions must be authorized by the flight instructors endorsement in the recreational pilots
logbook.
b. Recreational pilots may act as PIC on a flight that is in Class B, C, and D airspace, at an
airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or on an airport having an
operational control tower after having received the required training and endorsement
(per 61.101(d)). Recreational pilots must have their logbook in their personal possession during
flight (per 61.101(d)(3)).
c. Recreational pilots who want to fly beyond 50 nm from the departure airport where
training was received must receive additional ground and flight training on the private pilot
cross-country training requirements of part 61, subpart E, and must receive an instructor
endorsement (per 61.101(c)). Recreational pilots must have their logbook in their personal
possession when operating an aircraft (per 61.101(c)(3)).
16. PRIVATE PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the private pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart E.
a. An applicant for a private pilot certificate must possess at least a student pilot
certificate, sport pilot certificate, or a recreational pilot certificate that is current and valid.
b. The flight instructor is given discretion in developing a flight training program to meet
the requirements of part 61, subpart E. The regulation spells out the specific minimum
aeronautical experience requirements that must be met.
c. Applicants must meet night experience requirements regardless of medical qualification
considerations. The only exception is in accordance with 61.110.
d. The 3 hours of flight training in a single-engine or multiengine airplane on the control
and maneuvering of an airplane solely by reference to instruments (see 61.109(a)(3) and
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61.109(b)(3)) and the 3 hours of flight training in a powered-lift on the control and maneuvering
of a powered-lift solely by reference to instruments (see 61.109(e)(3)) do not have to be
conducted by a certificated flight instructorinstrument (CFII). However, the training must be
in an aircraft and not in a flight simulator or a flight training device unless it was performed in
accordance with a 14 CFR part 142 approved training program.
e. Except as in accordance with 61.110, a person who does not meet the night flying
requirements in a gyroplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft
( 61.109(d)(2), 61.109(i)(2), or 61.109(j)(2)) may be issued a private pilot certificate with the
limitation Night Flying Prohibited. This limitation may only be removed by an examiner or
ASI if the holder complies with the requirements of 61.109(d)(2), 61.109(i)(2), or
61.109(j)(2), as appropriate.
f. Private pilots (and applicants for the certificate) must understand and comply with all
private pilot privileges and limitations, including compensation or hire and expense sharing, in
accordance with 61.113 through 61.117.
17. COMMERCIAL PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency,
flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the commercial pilot certificate is located in
part 61, subpart F.
a. An applicant for a commercial pilot certificate must hold at least a private pilot
certificate issued under part 61.
NOTE: This may be a standard U.S. pilot certificate, or a 61.75 pilot
certificate that is based on a foreign pilot license or meets the requirements
of 61.73. The person may be able to apply for a commercial pilot certificate
by being able to meet the requirements of 61.73 (meaning, able to qualify
for the commercial pilot certificate under the special rules for military pilots
or former military pilots). If a person is basing application for a commercial
pilot certificate on a 61.75 pilot certificate, the authenticity of the foreign
pilot license must be verified through the persons foreign civil aviation
authority.
b. An applicant for a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane or powered-lift category
rating must hold or concurrently obtain the appropriate instrument rating.
18. AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT (ATP) CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight
proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for an ATP certificate, including a
restricted privileges ATP certificate, are located in part 61, subpart G.
a. An Applicant for an ATP Certificate Must Possess One of the Following:
(1) A commercial pilot certificate and an instrument (airplane, helicopter, or
powered-lift) rating issued under part 61;
(2) A foreign ATP license or a foreign commercial pilot license and an instrument
(airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift) rating, without limitations, issued by a contracting state to
the Convention on International Civil Aviation. If applying for an ATP certificate based on
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holding a foreign pilot license and ratings, the authenticity of that foreign pilot license must be
verified through the foreign civil aviation authority; or
(3) Be a military pilot or former military pilot and have met the requirements of 61.73
that qualifies the applicant for a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument (airplane,
helicopter, or powered-lift) rating.
b. Instructor Recommendation. An instructor recommendation is not required, unless
the applicant has failed the practical test and this is a retest (per 61.49). Applicants for retest
must comply with the appropriate retest requirements of 61.49. In addition, the instructor must
sign the applicants FAA Form 8710-1 application for the retest.
c. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP)
( 61.153(e)). The Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP) is
required for applicants of an ATP certificate with an airplane category multiengine class rating,
or an ATP certificate issued concurrently with a type rating, and is intended to prepare the
applicant to operate safely in those operations which require an ATP certificate by rule. After
July 31, 2014, all persons seeking an ATP certificate with airplane category multiengine class
rating will be required to present a graduation certificate certifying the completion of an ATP
CTP when applying for the ATP knowledge test.
NOTE: A restricted privileges ATP certificate allows the holder to act as
second in command (SIC) in part 121 operations (except flag or
supplemental operations that requires three or more pilots). The holder does
not need to possess the minimum qualification or experience requirements in
61.159 for an ATP certificate and cannot act as PIC in operations requiring
an ATP certificate. All applicants for a restricted privileges ATP certificate
must meet the requirements of 61.160 and, when applying for the ATP
knowledge test after July 31, 2014, they must present a graduation certificate
certifying completion of an ATP CTP.
19. FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS OTHER THAN FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS WITH A
SPORT PILOT RATING. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and
endorsement requirements for the flight instructor certificate, other than flight instructors with a
sport pilot rating, is located in part 61, subpart H. To be eligible for a flight instructor certificate,
an applicant must:
a. Hold a commercial pilot certificate or an ATP certificate with an aircraft rating
appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought and that was issued under part 61.
b. Hold an instrument rating/instrument privileges (e.g., instrument privileges, as on an
ATP certificate the instrument privileges are conferred) on the applicants pilot certificate, if the
applicant is seeking a flight instructor certificate with an airplane category, powered-lift rating,
or instrument rating, and was issued under the pertinent certification requirements of part 61.
c. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has been given the required
ground and flight training and has been found competent to pass the practical test. An instructor
who meets the requirements of 61.195(h) must make the endorsement.
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d. Have logged at least 15 hours as PIC in the category and class of aircraft that is
appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought.
e. For applicants applying for a flight instructor certificate with airplane and glider
category ratings, the applicant must have received a logbook endorsement that attests to
satisfactory demonstration of instructional proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and
spin recovery procedures in airplanes or gliders, as appropriate. A logbook endorsement that
attests to satisfactory demonstration of instructional proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry,
spins, and spin recovery procedures is required for the initial flight instructor certificate (for a
rating in airplanes or gliders). This means, even if the applicant were to initially seek a flight
instructor certificate with an airplane multiengine rating, the applicant would still be required to
receive a logbook endorsement that attests to satisfactory demonstration of instructional
proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. However, the
training would be required to be performed in an airplane (most likely a single-engine land
airplane) that does not contain any restrictions from spins.
20. FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS WITH A SPORT PILOT RATING. Specific knowledge,
flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the flight instructor
certificate with a sport pilot rating is located in part 61 subpart K. To be eligible for a flight
instructor certificate with a sport pilot rating an applicant must:
a. Hold a current and valid sport, recreational, or private pilot certificate with category and
class ratings or privileges, as applicable that are appropriate to the flight instructor privileges
sought.
b. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has met the aeronautical
experience required by 61.411, for the category and class privileges, as applicable, that are
appropriate to the flight instructor privileges sought.
c. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has been given the ground
and flight training required by 61.409 and has been found competent to pass the practical test.
An instructor who meets the requirements of 61.415 or 14 CFR part 62, 61.429 must make
the endorsement.
d. The training and experience required to obtain additional sport pilot flight instructor
privileges must be supervised by an appropriately authorized flight instructor. Additional training
requirements and endorsements are established for the following additional privileges:
(1) To provide training in an additional category or class of light-sport aircraft, an
applicant must meet the training requirements and endorsements required in 61.419. The
applicant must successfully complete a proficiency check from an authorized instructor other
than the instructor who trained him or her, and provide a completed FAA Form 8710-11, Airman
Certificate and/or Rating ApplicationSport Pilot, to the authorized instructor.
(2) To provide training in an additional make and model of light-sport aircraft, an
applicant must have at least 5 hours of flight time in a make and model of light-sport aircraft
within the same set of aircraft in which he or she provides training.
(3) To provide training to operate a light-sport aircraft in Class B, C, and D airspace, at
an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or on an airport having an
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operational control tower, an applicant must have the endorsement specified in 61.325, or be
otherwise authorized to conduct operations in this airspace.
(4) To provide training in a light-sport aircraft with a VH greater than 87 kts CAS, an
applicant must have the endorsement specified in 61.327, or be otherwise authorized to operate
a light-sport aircraft with a VH greater than 87 kts CAS.
e. For applicants applying for a flight instructor certificate with sport pilot rating with
airplane or glider category privileges, the applicant must have received a logbook endorsement
that attests he/she is competent and possesses instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin
entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures after receiving flight training in those training areas in
an airplane or glider, as appropriate, that is certificated for spins.
(1) An applicant who seeks additional category and class privileges to be added to
his/her flight instructor certificate with sport pilot rating in an airplane or glider would be
required to receive the same training and logbook endorsement.
(2) This training would be required to be performed in a single-engine airplane or glider
(preferably a light-sport aircraft) that does not contain any restrictions from spins.
f. For single place aircraft, pre-solo flight training must be provided in an aircraft that has
two pilot stations and is of the same category and class applicable to the certificate, rating, or
privilege sought.
g. To provide ground or flight training for a private pilot certificate with a powered
parachute or weight-shift-control aircraft rating, an applicant must hold at least a private pilot
certificate with the applicable category and class rating; a flight instructor certificate with a sport
pilot rating or privileges, and the applicable flight instructor category and class privileges.
h. All flight instructors with a sport pilot rating or privileges must carry his or her logbook
or other evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements on all flights. Other
evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements may be a preprinted card or record
that includes the endorsements. See 61.51(i)(5).
21. GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES (EXCEPT THOSE WITH
A SPORT PILOT RATING). The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor
certificate (except those with a sport pilot rating) are contained in FAA Order 8700.1, General
Aviation Operations Inspectors Handbook, Volume 2, Chapter 13 and FAA Order 8710.3,
Designated Pilot and Flight Engineer Examiners Handbook, Chapter 14. Flight instructor
certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued to flight instructors who have maintained a
high level of flight training activity and who meet special criteria. Once issued, a gold seal flight
instructor certificate will be reissued each time the instructors certificate is renewed. Applicants
for gold seal flight instructor certificates must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating
(glider flight instructors need not hold an instrument rating) or an ATP certificate;
b. The flight instructor must hold a ground instructor certificate with an advanced or
instrument ground instructor rating; and
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c. The flight instructor must have accomplished the following within the previous
24 calendar-months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for a practical test, and at least
80 percent of the applicants passed their tests on the first attempt;
(2) Conducted at least 20 practical tests as a designated pilot examiner, or graduation
tests as chief instructor of a 14 CFR part 141 approved pilot school course; or
(3) A combination of the above requirements. (Two practical tests conducted equal the
credit given for one applicant trained and recommended for a practical test.)
22. GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES (WITH A SPORT PILOT
RATING). The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor certificate (with a sport
pilot rating) are contained in FAA Order 8700.1, Vol. 2, Ch. 13, and FAA Order 8710.7, Sport
Pilot Examiners Handbook. Flight instructor certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued
to flight instructors who have maintained a high level of flight training activity and who meet
special criteria. Once issued, a gold seal flight instructor certificate will be reissued each time the
instructors certificate is renewed. Applicants for gold seal flight instructor certificates (with a
sport pilot rating) must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold at least a sport pilot certificate;
b. The flight instructor must hold a ground instructor certificate with a basic ground
instructor rating;
c. The flight instructor must have accomplished one of the following within the previous
24 months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for an original certificate with at
least 80 percent of those applicants recommended passing the practical test on his or her first
attempt;
(2) Conducted at least 20 certification practical tests as an examiner or conducted
20 certification graduation tests as a chief flight instructor for an approved pilot school course; or
(3) A combination of the requirements in paragraphs 22c(1) and (2). (Two certification
practical tests/certification graduation tests equate to one trained and recommended applicant.)
23. RENEWAL OF A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATE. The renewal
requirements for a flight instructor certificate are located in 61.197. Renewal of a flight
instructor certificate may be accomplished at any time.
a. A flight instructor certificate that has not expired may be renewed in accordance with
61.197(a) by:
(1) Passing a practical test for one of the ratings listed on the persons current flight
instructor certificate or passing a practical test for an additional flight instructor rating;
(2) Presenting to an ASI the appropriate records that verify the requirements of
61.197(a)(2)(i) or 61.197(a)(2)(ii) were accomplished;
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f. Regardless of what has been explained in the paragraphs above, it should be understood
that the FAA has the prerogative to require any applicant to complete a part or the entire
applicable flight instructor practical test. A practical test may be required if there is reason to
believe that it will correct some deficiency in the applicants instructing abilities or it has been
determined necessary to introduce new training procedures or certification requirements.
24. EXPIRED FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATE. The requirements for holders of
an expired flight instructor certificate to obtain new certificates are located in 61.199. A
practical test is required in the exchange of an expired flight instructor certificate. A DPE or an
ASI will not reinstate expired flight instructor certificates unless the applicant passes a practical
test.
a. The holder of an expired flight instructor certificate (i.e., a flight instructor certificate
that conforms to 61.5(c)) may exchange that certificate for a new certificate (except for a flight
instructor certificate with a sport pilot rating) by passing one practical test, per 61.183(h), for
one of the aircraft ratings held on that persons expired flight instructor certificate.
NOTE: If the practical test is for a flight instructor certificate with a sport
pilot rating, the examiner may only issue that rating and provide
endorsements for the category and class privileges tested.
b. Flight instructor ratings or limited flight instructor ratings on a pilot certificate are no
longer valid. To reinstate instructor privileges, all requirements for initial issuance of a flight
instructor certificate must be met.
25. INSTRUMENT RATING. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and
endorsement requirements for the instrument rating are located in 61.65.
26. ADDITIONAL AIRCRAFT RATINGS (OTHER THAN ATP). Specific knowledge,
flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for additional category,
class, or type rating (for other than at the ATP level) are located in 61.63.
a. Category and Class Ratings. Applicants adding a category and/or class rating to a
recreational pilot certificate or higher must have an instructors recommendations and
appropriate endorsements. An applicant need not take an additional knowledge test, provided the
person holds an airplane, powered-lift, rotorcraft, powered parachute, weight-shift-control
aircraft, or airship rating at or above the pilot certificate level sought. An applicant must pass the
required practical test appropriate to the pilot certificate for the aircraft category and, if
applicable, class rating sought. Additionally, applicants must comply with the requirements of
61.63, as noted below:
(1) Category Ratings. Applicants must receive the training and have the aeronautical
experience required by part 61 that applies to the pilot certificate level for the category, and if
applicable, class rating sought.
(2) Class Ratings. Applicants must be found competent in the knowledge areas and
proficient in the areas of operation for the class rating sought.
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(3) Type Ratings. Applicants must have the required training time, logbook, or training
record endorsements, and pass the required practical test in accordance with the ATP/type rating
PTS (see 61.63(d)).
b. Experimental Category and Class RatingSection 61.31(l)(2)(iii)(B) for the
Carriage of Passengers. An applicant holding at least a recreational pilot certificate may apply
for the issuance of a category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of
experimental aircraft in accordance with the provisions of 61.63(l), with the limitation
Authorized Experimental Aircraft: [Category] and [Class] rating [Make] and [Model]. The
applicant is required to receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized flight instructor who
has determined that the applicant is proficient to act as PIC of the same category, class, make,
and model of experimental aircraft for which the application was made. The 5 hours of flight
experience must have been logged between September 1, 2004, and August 31, 2005. Once the
pilot complies with the provisions of 61.63(k), that pilot may be issued the appropriate
category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of experimental aircraft.
27. ADDITIONAL CATEGORY/CLASS RATINGS AT THE ATP CERTIFICATION
LEVEL.
a. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement
requirements for additional category, class, or type rating (at the ATP certification level) are
located in 61.165.
b. Applicants for a type rating on the ATP certification level must have the required
training time, logbook, or training record endorsements, and pass the required practical test in
accordance with the ATP/type rating PTS (see 61.157(b)).
c. An instructor recommendation is not required, unless the applicant has failed the
practical test and this is a retest (per 61.49). Applicants for retest must comply with the
appropriate retest requirements of 61.49. In addition, the instructor must sign the applicants
FAA Form 8710-1 application for the retest.
d. Experimental category and class rating 61.31(1)(2)(iii)(B). An applicant holding an
ATP certificate may apply for the issuance of a category and class rating limited to a specific
make and model of experimental aircraft in accordance with the provisions of 61.165(f) with
the limitation Authorized Experimental Aircraft: [Category] and [Class] rating [Make] and
[Model]. The applicant is required to receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized flight
instructor who has determined that the applicant is proficient to act as PIC of the same category,
class, make, and model of experimental aircraft for which the application was made. The 5 hours
of flight experience must have been logged between September 1, 2004, and August 31, 2005.
Once the pilot complies with the provisions of 61.165(f), that pilot may be issued the
appropriate category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of experimental
aircraft.
28. OTHER INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS. Specific requirements for knowledge,
aeronautical experience and, as appropriate, testing for the complex airplane, high performance
airplane, tailwheel airplane, high altitude/pressurized airplane, and type specific training are
found in 61.31.
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Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1. CONTENTSINSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS
No.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
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Appendix 1
29.
30.
40
41.
42.
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50.
AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
61.183(g), 61.187(a) and 61.187(b)(7) ......................................................................13
Spin training: 61.183(i)(1) ...........................................................................................13
Flight Instructor with a Sport Pilot Rating Endorsements
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Ground instructor who does not meet the recent experience requirements:
61.217(b) ......................................................................................................................15
Additional Endorsements
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
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Appendix 1
75.
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Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1. INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS
The following examples are recommended sample endorsements for use by authorized
instructors when endorsing logbooks, or other means found acceptable to the Administrator for
airmen applying for a knowledge or practical test, or when certifying accomplishment of
requirements for pilot operating privileges. Each endorsement must be legible and include the
instructors signature, date of signature, certificated flight instructor (CFI) or certificated ground
instructor (CGI) certificate number, and certificate expiration date, if applicable. The purpose for
this advisory circular is to provide guidance and to encourage standardization among instructors.
STUDENT PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
1.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has satisfactorily completed the presolo knowledge
exam of 61.87(b) for the (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
2.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required presolo training in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87(d) and
is proficient to make solo flights in (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
3.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required presolo training in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87(o) and
is proficient to make solo flights at night in a (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
4.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training to qualify for solo
flying. I have determined he/she meets the applicable requirements of 61.87(p) and is
proficient to make solo flights in (make and model).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
5.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.93(b)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to practice solo takeoffs and landings at (airport name).
The takeoffs and landings at (airport name) are subject to the following conditions: (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
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Appendix 1
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I
find he/she has met the applicable requirements of 61.93, and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
7.
I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
8. Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that he/she is proficient of 61.93(b)(2)
to conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the following conditions:
(List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
9.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.95(a). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B) airspace. (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
10. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace: 61.95(a)
and 91.131(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.95(a)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport).
(List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
11. TSA Endorsement(s).
I certify that [insert students name] has presented me a [insert type of document presented, such
as a U.S. birth certificate or U.S. passport, and the relevant control or sequential number on the
document, if any] establishing that [he or she] is a U.S. citizen or national in accordance with
49 CFR 1552.3(h). [Insert date and instructors signature and CFI number.]
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I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I
find he/she has met the applicable requirements of 61.93, and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
18. Solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(2).
NOTE: This is done before each solo cross-country flight and may be
accomplished by any instructor who reviews the flight planning. This
endorsement is made in the students logbook.
I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
19. Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that he/she is proficient of 61.93(b)(2)
to conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the following conditions:
(List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
20. Solo flight in Class B, C, and D airspace: 61.94(a).
NOTE: Required each additional 90-day period.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.94(a). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B, C, or D) airspace and
authorized to operate to, from through and at __________ airport. (List any applicable conditions
or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
21. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace or on an
airport having an operational control tower: 61.94(a) and 91.131(b)(1).
NOTE: Required each additional 90-day period.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.94(a)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport)
located in Class B, C, or D airspace or on an airport having an operational control tower. (List
any applicable conditions or limitations.)
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
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Appendix 1
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
28. Passing a sport pilot practical test: 61.309, 61.311, and 61.313.
NOTE: Required by 61.317, issued by a designated pilot examiner (DPE).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has met the requirements of 61.309, 61.311, and
61.313, and I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of (category and class of light
sport aircraft) aircraft.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
29. Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to,
from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower: 61.325.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.325. I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct operations in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport
located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational
control tower.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
30. Light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots CAS: 61.327.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training required in
accordance with 61.327 in a (make and model aircraft). I have determined him/her proficient to
act as PIC of a light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots (kts) CAS.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
RECREATIONAL PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
31. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), and 61.97(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.97(b). I have
determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
32. Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) and (b), and 61.99.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.98(b) and
61.99. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
33. Recreational pilot to operate within 50 nm of the airport where training was received:
61.101(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.101(b). I
have determined he/she is competent to operate at the (name of airport).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
34. Recreational pilot to act as PIC on a flight that exceeds 50 nm of the departure
airport: 61.101(c).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required cross-country training of
61.101(c). I have determined that he/she is proficient in cross-country flying of part 61,
subpart E.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
35. Recreational pilot with less than 400 flight hours and not logged PIC time within the
preceding 180 days: 61.101(g).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required 180-day recurrent training of
61.101(g) in a (make and model aircraft). I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of
that aircraft.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
36. Recreational pilot to conduct solo flights for the purpose of obtaining an additional
certificate or rating while under the supervision of an authorized flight instructor:
61.101(i).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.87 in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she is prepared to conduct a solo flight on (date) under
the following conditions: (List all conditions which require endorsement, e.g., flight which
requires communication with air traffic control, flight in an aircraft for which the pilot does not
hold a category/class rating, etc.).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
37. Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to,
from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower: 61.101(d).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.101(d). I
have determined he/she is proficient to conduct operations in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an
airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an
operational control tower.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
PRIVATE PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
38. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with
61.105. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
Page 11
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1/6/14
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
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Appendix 1
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
airman knowledge test report. The instructor must sign the block provided
for the instructors recommendation on the reverse side of FAA Form 8710-1
application for each retake of a practical test.
68. Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than airline transport pilot (ATP)):
61.63(b) or 61.63(c).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received
the required training for an additional (name the aircraft category/class rating). I have determined
that he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class rating).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
69. Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(d)(2) and 61.63(d)(3).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.63(d)(2) and
61.63(d)(3) for an addition of a (name the type rating).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
70. Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(d)(2) and 61.63(d)(3).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.63(d)(2) and
61.63(d)(3) for an addition of a (name the category/class/type rating). I have determined that
he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class/type rating).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
71. Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (at the ATP
level): 61.157(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.157(b)(1) for
an addition of a (name the type rating).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
72. Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (at the ATP
level): 61.157(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.157(b)(1) for
an addition of a (name the category/class/type rating).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
Page 17
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
Page 18
Advisory
Circular
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Date: 9/20/07
Initiated by: AFS-810
AC No: 61-67C
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) has been updated to reflect new resources for sport
pilots and warnings about design maneuvering speed.
2. PRINCIPLE CHANGES. This change updates resources for sport pilots and warnings about
design maneuvering speed.
a. Paragraph 2b(12) adds Sports Pilot Practical Test Standards.
b. Paragraph 5 contains the proper Internet address for this AC.
c. Paragraph 100f adds information regarding design maneuvering speed.
d. Paragraph 100g adds information regarding load factor.
PAGE CONTROL CHART
Remove Pages
Dated
Insert Pages
Dated
ii
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9/25/00
9/25/00
ii
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9/20/07
ORIGINAL SIGNED BY
Carol Giles for
James J. Ballough
Director, Flight Standards Service
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Advisory
Circular
Date: 9/20/07
Initiated by: AFS-810
AC No: 61-67C
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) explains the stall and spin awareness training required
under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 and offers guidance to flight
instructors who provide it. This AC also informs pilots of the airworthiness standards for the type
certification of normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes prescribed in 14 CFR part 23,
23.221, concerning spin maneuvers, and it emphasizes the importance of observing restrictions
that prohibit the intentional spins of certain airplanes.
2. RELATED READING MATERIAL (current editions).
a. Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall Awareness Training Study. This
document may be purchased from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S.
Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161. To order by
telephone call: (800) 553-6847. The NTIS identification number is ADA041310.
b. The following documents are available on the Internet at http: www.faa.gov/.
(1) AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.
(2) FAA-H-8083-1, Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook.
(3) FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
(4) FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook.
(5) FAA-S-8081-3, Recreational Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane and
Rotorcraft.
(6) FAA-S-8081-6, Flight Instructor - Practical Test Standards for Airplane (SingleEngine/ Multiengine).
(7) FAA-S-8081-8, Flight Instructor - Practical Test Standards for Glider.
(8) FAA-S-8081-12, Commercial Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane.
(9) FAA-S-8081-14, Private Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane.
(10) FAA-S-8081-22, Private Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Glider.
AC 61-67C CHG 1
9/20/07
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CONTENTS
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AC 61-67C CHG 1
9/20/07
e. VS1. VS1 is the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified
configuration.
f. VA. VA is the design maneuvering speed. Do not use full or abrupt control movements at or
above this speed. It is possible to exceed the airplane structural limits at or above VA. Rapid and
large alternating control inputs, especially in combination with large changes in pitch, roll, or yaw
(e.g., large side slip angles) may result in structural failures at any speed, even below VA.
g. Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wings to the
actual weight of the airplane and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in terms of G.
The aircraft's stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor. For example,
an airplane that has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when
subjected to a load factor of 4 G's. The possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by
increasing the load factor (i.e., by putting the airplane in a steep turn or spiral) is much greater than
in normal cruise flight. When an airplane stalls at a higher indicated air speed due to excessive
maneuvering loads, it is called an accelerated maneuver stall. A stall entered from straight and level
flight or from an unaccelerated straight climb will not produce additional load factors. In a constant
rate turn, increased load factors will cause an airplane's stall speed to increase as the angle of bank
increases. Excessively steep banks should be avoided because the airplane will stall at a much
higher speed. If the aircraft exceeds maneuvering speed, structural damage to the aircraft may result
before it stalls. If the nose falls during a steep turn, the pilot might attempt to raise it to the level
flight attitude without shallowing the bank. This situation tightens the turn and can lead to a diving
spiral. A feeling of weightlessness will result if a stall recovery is performed by abruptly pushing
the elevator control forward, which will reduce the up load on the wings. Recoveries from stalls and
spins involve a tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in airspeed) and an increase in
load factor in the pullup. However, recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes
higher airspeeds and consequently higher load factors than stall recoveries due to the much lower
position of the nose. Significant load factor increases are sometimes induced during pullup after
recovery from a stall or spin. It should be noted that structural damage can result from the high load
factors that could be imposed on the aircraft by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane's
design maneuvering speed. Large, aggressive control reversals can also lead to loads that can
exceed the structural design limits, even at speeds below the airplanes design maneuvering speed.
h. Center of Gravity (CG). The CG location has a direct effect on the effective lift and AOA
of the wing, the amount and direction of force on the tail, and the degree of stabilizer deflection
needed to supply the proper tail force for equilibrium. The CG position, therefore, has a significant
effect on stability and stall/spin recovery. As the CG is moved aft, the amount of elevator deflection
needed to stall the airplane at a given load factor will be reduced. An increased AOA will be
achieved with less elevator control force. This could make the entry into inadvertent stalls easier,
and during the subsequent recovery, it would be easier to generate higher load factors due to the
reduced elevator control forces. In an airplane with an extremely aft CG, very light back elevator
control forces may lead to inadvertent stall entries and if a spin is entered, the balance of forces on
the airplane may result in a flat spin. Recovery from a flat spin is often impossible. A forward CG
location will often cause the stalling AOA to be reached at a higher airspeed. Increased back
elevator control force is generally required with a forward CG location.
i. Weight. Although the distribution of weight has the most direct effect on stability,
increased gross weight can also have an effect on an aircraft's flight characteristics, regardless of the
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CG position. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the stall speed increases. The increased
weight requires a higher AOA to produce additional lift to support the weight.
j. Altitude and Temperature. Altitude has little or no effect on an airplane's indicated stall
speed. Thinner air at higher altitudes will result in decreased aircraft performance and a higher true
airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. Higher than standard temperatures will also contribute to
increased true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. However, the higher true airspeed has no
effect on indicated approach or stall speeds. The manufacturer's recommended indicated airspeeds
should therefore be maintained during the landing approach, regardless of the elevation or the
density altitude at the airport of landing.
k. Snow, Ice, or Frost on the Wings. Even a small accumulation of snow, ice, or frost on an
aircraft's surface can cause an increase in that aircraft's stall speed. Such accumulation changes the
shape of the wing, disrupting the smooth flow of air over the surface and, consequently, increasing
drag and decreasing lift. Flight should not be attempted when snow, ice, or frost have accumulated
on the aircraft surfaces.
l. Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at a significantly higher airspeed
than in stable conditions. A vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change in the relative
wind, and result in an abrupt increase in AOA. Although a gust may not be maintained long enough
for a stall to develop, the aircraft may stall while the pilot is attempting to control the flightpath,
particularly during an approach in gusty conditions. When flying in moderate to severe turbulence
or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach speed should be maintained. In cruise flight in
moderate or severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall speed and below
maneuvering speed should be used. Maneuvering speed is lower at a lower weight.
101. DISTRACTIONS. Stalls resulting from improper airspeed management are most likely to
occur when the pilot is distracted by one or more other tasks, such as locating a checklist or
attempting a restart after an engine failure; flying a traffic pattern on a windy day; reading a chart or
making fuel and/or distance calculations; or attempting to retrieve items from the floor, back seat, or
glove compartment. Pilots at all skill levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an
inadvertent stall or spin while performing tasks that are secondary to controlling the aircraft.
102. WING CONTAMINATION EFFECTS ON STALL WARNING, STALL SPEED, AND
POSTSTALL RECOVERY. Stall speeds and stall characteristics are usually determined with
uncontaminated airfoils. For airplanes that are certified for flight in icing conditions, ice shapes may
have also been considered for their effects on aircraft. However, not all possible icing conditions
and configurations can be tested. Icing is the primary concern, but any contamination or alteration
of the leading edge caused by factors such as mud, insect residue, or ice can significantly alter the
aerodynamic characteristics of the wing, but it is icing that is of primary concern.
a. In some icing conditions there are adverse changes to the stall speed, stall characteristics,
performance, and handling characteristics of the airplane. These adverse changes are potentially
hazardous for several reasons. First, aerodynamic stall may occur with little or none of the usual
cues in advance. These cues include airframe or control surface buffet, reduced control
effectiveness, and activation of the stall warning horn, stick shaker, and stick pusher. Next, because
insufficient power or thrust to increase speed while holding constant altitude to reduce the AOA.
Finally, postal recovery of a contaminated airplane may be complicated by gross changes in control
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effectiveness, airplane response characteristics, and abnormal control forces. As a result of these
factors, large losses in altitude can occur during recovery.
b. Accordingly, in these conditions, a prompt control input to decrease pitch attitude to
recover lateral control, with aggressive power application ensures the most rapid recovery with
minimum altitude loss. The AOA must be reduced immediately as the wing, or part of the wing is
already stalled and no margin remains to allow holding altitude/ attitude as power is applied. The
pilot should note the AOA (or airspeed) at upset and not approach that AOA (airspeed) during the
recovery or another upset may occur. This AOA may be well below the normal stall AOA (below
shaker AOA) and the airspeed may be well above normal stall airspeed. Stall speed increases as
high as 50 knots have been observed in post upset data review.
c. Further complications involve use of the autopilot. The autopilot may apply control inputs
that will mask detection of some of these tactile cues by the pilot or attempt to control the airplane
in the stall. Sudden autopilot self-disconnect with control surfaces trimmed into extreme positions
or with controls trimmed into uncoordinated flight will complicate poststall recovery and may lead
to a spin or spiral.
103. STALL RECOGNITION. There are several ways to recognize that a stall is impending
before it actually occurs. When one or more of these indicators is noted, initiation of a recovery
should be instinctive (unless a full stall is being practiced intentionally from an altitude that allows
recovery at least 1,500 feet above ground level (AGL) for single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet
AGL for multiengine airplanes). One indication of a stall is a mushy feeling in the flight controls
and less control effect as the aircraft's speed is reduced. This reduction in control effectiveness is
attributed in part to reduced airflow over the flight control surfaces. In fixed pitch propeller
airplanes, a loss of revolutions per minute (rpm) may be evident when approaching a stall in poweron conditions. For both airplanes and gliders, a reduction in the sound of air flowing along the
fuselage is usually evident. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting, uncontrollable pitching, or
vibrations may begin. Many aircraft are equipped with stall warning devices that will alert the pilot
4 to 8 knots prior to the onset of a stall. Finally, kinesthesia (the sensing of changes in direction or
speed of motion), when properly learned and developed, will warn the pilot of a decrease in speed
or the beginning of a mushing of the aircraft. These preliminary indications serve as a warning to
the pilot to increase airspeed by adding power, lowering the nose, and/or decreasing the angle of
bank.
104. TYPES OF STALLS. Stalls can be practiced both with and without power. Stalls should be
practiced to familiarize the student with the aircraft's particular stall characteristics without putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous condition. In multiengine airplanes, single-engine stalls
must be avoided. Descriptions of some different types of stalls follows:
a. Power-off stalls (also known as approach-to-landing stalls) are practiced to simulate
normal approach-to-landing conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred
in these power-off situations, such as crossed control turns from base leg to final approach
(resulting in a skidding or slipping turn); attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final
approach by using only an increased pitch attitude; and improper airspeed control on final approach
or in other segments of the traffic pattern.
b. Power-on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are practiced to simulate takeoff and
climbout conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred during these phases
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of flight, particularly during go-arounds. A causal factor in such accidents has been the pilot's
failure to maintain positive control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature flap retraction, and
during short field takeoffs has also been a causal accident factor.
c. Accelerated stalls can occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds due to abrupt and/or excessive
control applications. These stalls may occur in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt changes in
flightpath. Accelerated stalls usually are more severe than unaccelerated stalls and are often
unexpected because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds.
105. STALL RECOVERY. The key factor in recovering from a stall is regaining positive control
of the aircraft by reducing the AOA. At the first indication of a stall, the aircraft AOA must be
decreased to allow the wings to regain lift. Every aircraft in upright flight may require a different
amount of forward pressure or relaxation of elevator back pressure to regain lift. It should be noted
that too much forward pressure can hinder recovery by imposing a negative load on the wing. The
next step in recovering from a stall is to smoothly apply maximum allowable power (if applicable)
to increase the airspeed and to minimize the loss of altitude. Certain high performance airplanes
may require only an increase in thrust and relaxation of the back pressure on the yoke to effect
recovery. As airspeed increases and the recovery is completed, power should be adjusted to return
the airplane to the desired flight condition. Straight and level flight should be established with full
coordinated use of the controls. The airspeed indicator or tachometer, if installed, should never be
allowed to reach their high speed red lines at anytime during a practice stall.
106. SECONDARY STALLS. If recovery from a stall is not made properly, a secondary stall or a
spin may result. A secondary stall is caused by attempting to hasten the completion of a stall
recovery before the aircraft has regained sufficient flying speed. When this stall occurs, appropriate
forward pressure or the relaxation of back elevator pressure should again be performed just as in a
normal stall recovery. When sufficient airspeed has been regained, the aircraft can then be returned
to straight and level flight.
107. SPINS. A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that results in what is termed
autorotation wherein the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates
around a vertical axis, the rising wing is less stalled than the descending wing creating a rolling,
yawing, and pitching motion. The airplane is basically being forced downward by gravity, rolling,
yawing, and pitching in a spiral path.
108. WEIGHT AND BALANCE. Minor weight or balance changes can affect an aircraft's spin
characteristics. For example, the addition of a suitcase in the aft baggage compartment will affect
the weight and balance of the aircraft. An aircraft that may be difficult to spin intentionally in the
utility category (restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could have less resistance to spin entry in the
normal category (less restricted aft CG and increased weight) due to its ability to generate a higher
AOA and increased load factor. Furthermore, an aircraft that is approved for spins in the utility
category, but loaded in the normal category, may not be recoverable from a spin that is allowed to
progress beyond one turn or 3-second spin, whichever is longer (refer to 23.221(a)).
109. PRIMARY CAUSE. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is exceeding the critical AOA
while applying excessive or insufficient rudder and, to a lesser extent, aileron. Insufficient or
excessive control inputs to correct for Power Factor (PF), or asymmetric propeller loading, could
aggravate the precipitation of a spin. At a high AOA the downward moving blade, which is
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normally on the right side of the propeller arc, has a higher AOA and therefore higher thrust than
the upward moving blade on the left. This results in a tendency for the airplane to yaw around the
vertical axis to the left. If insufficient or excessive rudder correction is applied to counteract PF,
uncoordinated flight may result. A classic situation where PF could play an important role in a
stall/spin accident is during a go-around or short field takeoff where the airplane is at a high pitch
attitude, high power setting, and low airspeed. In an uncoordinated maneuver, the pitot/static
instruments, especially the altimeter and airspeed indicator, are unreliable due to the uneven
distribution of air pressure over the fuselage. The pilot may not be aware that a critical AOA is
approaching until the stall warning device activates. If a stall recovery is not promptly initiated, the
airplane is more likely to enter an inadvertent spin. For example, stall/spin accidents have occurred
during a turn from base to final because the pilot attempted to rudder the airplane around (skid) so
as not to overshoot the runway nor use excessive bank angle in the traffic pattern. The spin that
occurs from cross controlling an aircraft usually results in rotation in the direction of the rudder
being applied, regardless of which wingtip is raised. In a skidding turn, where both aileron and
rudder are applied in the same direction, rotation will be in the direction the controls are applied.
However, in a slipping turn, where opposite aileron is held against the rudder, the resultant spin will
usually occur in the direction opposite the aileron that is being applied.
110. TYPES OF SPINS.
a. An incipient spin is that portion of a spin from the time the airplane stalls and rotation
starts, until the spin becomes fully developed. Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a
steady state spin are commonly used as an introduction to spin training and recovery techniques.
b. A fully developed, steady state spin occurs when the aircraft angular rotation rate, airspeed,
and vertical speed are stabilized from turn-to-turn in a flightpath that is close to vertical.
c. A flat spin is characterized by a near level pitch and roll attitude with the spin axis near the
CG of the airplane. Recovery from a flat spin may be extremely difficult and, in some cases,
impossible.
111. SPIN RECOVERY. Before flying any aircraft, in which spins are to be conducted, the pilot
should be familiar with the operating characteristics and standard operating procedures, including
spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AFM or POH. The first step in recovering from
an upright spin is to close the throttle completely to eliminate power and minimize the loss of
altitude. If the particular aircraft spin recovery techniques are not known, the next step is to
neutralize the ailerons, determine the direction of the turn, and apply full opposite rudder. When the
rotation slows, briskly move the elevator control forward to approximately the neutral position.
Some aircraft require merely a relaxation of back pressure; others require full forward elevator
control pressure. Forward movement of the elevator control will decrease the AOA. Once the stall is
broken, the spinning will stop. Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops to avoid entering a
spin in the opposite direction. When the rudder is neutralized, gradually apply enough aft elevator
pressure to return to level flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or application of
rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. If
the spin is being performed in an airplane, the engine will sometimes stop developing power due to
centrifugal force acting on the fuel in the airplane's tanks causing fuel interruption. It is, therefore,
recommended to assume that power is not available when practicing spin recovery. As a rough
estimate, an altitude loss of approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn can be expected in most
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small aircraft in which spins are authorized. Greater losses can be expected at higher density
altitudes.
112. SPIRAL MODE RECOVERY. The spiral mode is an autorotation mode similar to a spin.
The center of rotation is close to the centerline of the airplane but the airplane is not stalled. Many
airplanes and gliders will not spin at forward CG locations but will spiral. Many airplanes will enter
a spin but the spin will become more vertical and degenerate into a spiral. It is important to note that
when the spin transitions into the spiral the airspeed will increase as the nose goes down to near
vertical. The side forces on the airplane build very rapidly and recovery must be effected
immediately before exceeding the structural limits of the airplane. Release the back pressure on the
stick (yoke), neutralize the rudder and recover from the steep dive. As in stall and spin recovery,
avoid abrupt or excessive elevator inputs that could lead to a secondary stall.
113. THRU 199. RESERVED.
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(10) Utilize realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the student a task to perform
while flying at a low airspeed. Instruct the student to divide his/her attention between the task and
flying the aircraft to maintain control and avoid a stall. The following distractions can be used:
(a) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.
(b) Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
(c) Ask the student to reset the clock to Universal Coordinated Time.
(d) Ask the student to get something from the back seat.
(e) Ask the student to read the outside air temperature.
(f) Ask the student to call the Flight Service Station (FSS) for weather information.
(g) Ask the student to compute true airspeed with a flight computer.
(h) Ask the student to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
(i) Ask the student to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
(j) Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain altitude, then descend 200 feet and
maintain altitude.
(k) Have the student reverse course after a series of S-turns.
(11) Fly at low airspeeds with the airspeed indicator covered. Use various flap settings
and distractions.
b. Power-on (Departure) Stall.
(1) At a safe altitude, have the student attempt coordinated power-on (departure) stalls
straight ahead and in turns. Emphasize how these stalls could occur during takeoff.
(2) Ask the student to demonstrate a power-on (departure) stall and distract him/her just
before the stall occurs. Explain any effects the distraction may have had on the stall or recovery.
c. Engine Failure in a Climb Followed by a Gliding Turn. This demonstration will show
the student how much altitude the airplane loses following a power failure after takeoff and during a
turn back to the runway and why returning to the airport after losing an engine is not a
recommended procedure. This can be performed using either a medium or a steep bank in the turn,
but emphasis should be given to stall avoidance.
(1) Set up best rate of climb (VY). Directly below you there should be a straight line
landmark (i.e., road or power line) parallel to your flightpath.
(2) Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes through a cardinal altitude.
(3) Lower the nose to maintain the best glide speed and make a 260 turn at the best glide
speed. Emphasize that this turn should be into the wind (if there is a crosswind).
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(4) Re-intercept your final outbound course over the landmark you chose, inbound with an
80 turn in the opposite direction.
(5) Point out the altitude loss and emphasize how rapidly airspeed decreases following a
power failure in a climb attitude.
NOTE: Depending on winds, length of runway, and altitude the 260/80 turns
may need to be modified (250/70 or 270/90) to meet the existing situation.
d. Cross Controlled Stalls in Gliding Turns. Perform stalls in gliding turns to simulate
turns from base to final. Perform the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and a
skidding turn. Explain the difference between slipping and skidding turns. Explain the ball indicator
position in each turn and the aircraft behavior in each of the stalls.
e. Power-off (Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall with the correct
recovery and cleanup procedures. Note the loss of altitude.
(2) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract the student during the stall and
recovery and note the effect of the distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure can
cause a secondary stall.
f. Stalls During Go-arounds.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall, then recover and
attempt to climb with flaps extended. If a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held, a
secondary stall will occur. (In some airplanes, a stall will occur if a normal climb pitch attitude is
held).
(2) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall, then recover and
retract the flaps rapidly as a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held. A secondary stall or
settling with a loss of altitude may result.
g. Elevator Trim Stall.
(1) Have the student place the airplane in a landing approach configuration, in a trimmed
descent.
(2) After the descent is established, initiate a go-around by adding full power, holding
only light elevator and right rudder pressure.
(3) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swerve the airplane left. At the first indication
of a stall, recover to a normal climbing pitch attitude.
(4) Emphasize the importance of correct attitude control, application of control pressures,
and proper trim during go-arounds.
201. THRU 299. RESERVED.
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Page 13
AC 61-67C
9/25/00
(In an actual spin, the airspeed normally stabilizes below stall speed). The pilot must recognize a
spiral and initiate immediate recovery to prevent exceeding structural limits of the airplane.
301. SPIN TRAINING AND PARACHUTES. Part 91, 91.307(c), prohibits the pilot of a
civil aircraft from executing any intentional maneuver that exceeds 60 of bank relative to the
horizon, or exceeds 30 noseup or nosedown attitude relative to the horizon, unless an approved
parachute is worn by each occupant (other than a crewmember). Section 91.307(d) states, in part,
that 91.307(c) does not apply to flight tests for a pilot certificate or rating; or spins and other
flight maneuvers required by the regulations for any certificate or rating when given by a
certified flight instructor (CFI) or an airline transport pilot (ATP) instructing in accordance with
61.167.
a. Section 61.183(i) requires an applicant for a flight instructor certificate or rating to
receive flight training in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. The
applicant must also possess and demonstrate instructional proficiency in these areas to receive
the certificate or rating.
b. Because spin entry, spins, and spin recovery are required for a flight instructor
certificate or rating, a person receiving instruction from a CFI (or an ATP instructing in
accordance with 61.167) need not wear an approved parachute while instruction is being
provided in these maneuvers. This provision applies regardless of the certificate or rating for
which the person is receiving training and also if the person is receiving instruction that is not
being provided for the purpose of obtaining any additional certificate or rating. The instructor
providing the training is also not required to wear an approved parachute while providing this
flight training.
c. Any pilot or required crewmember may perform a maneuver that exceeds the limits
prescribed in 91.307(c) without wearing an approved parachute, provided there are no other
occupants in the aircraft or the other occupants are wearing approved parachutes.
302. THRU 399. RESERVED.
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AC 61-67C
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(4) There must be no characteristics during the spin (such as excessive rates of rotation
or extreme oscillatory motion) that might prevent a successful recovery due to disorientation or
incapacitation of the pilot.
NOTE: Unless a greater number of turns are requested for certification
acrobatic category airplanes have not been tested for more than six turns. The
recovery characteristics for additional turns are unknown.
c. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet the spin requirements for both
normal and acrobatic category airplanes and the applicable emergency exit requirements of
23.807 if the aircraft is approved for spins.
401. PLACARDS. Under 23.1567, all airplanes type-certificated under part 23 must have a
flight maneuver placard containing the following information:
a. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in front of and in clear view of
the pilot stating, No acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, approved.
b. For utility category airplanes that meet the spin requirements, there must be a placard in
front of and in clear view of the pilot stating, Acrobatic maneuvers are limited to the following
(list approved maneuvers and the recommended entry speed for each).
c. For utility category airplanes that do not meet the spin requirements for acrobatic
category airplanes, there must be an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: Spins
Prohibited.
d. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard in clear view of the pilot
listing the approved acrobatic maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If
inverted flight maneuvers are not approved, the placard must include a notation to this effect.
e. For acrobatic category airplanes and utility category airplanes approved for spin, there
must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the control actions for the recovery from
spinning maneuvers; and stating that recovery must be initiated when spiral characteristics
appear, or after not more than six turns or not more than any greater number of turns for which
the airplane has been certificated.
402. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional spins should
assume that the airplane may become uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices
should not be deactivated for pilot certification flight tests in airplanes for which they are
required equipment.
403. THRU 499. RESERVED.
Page 16
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Advisory
Circular
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Subject: Currency Requirements and
Guidance for the Flight Review
and Instrument Proficiency Check
Date: 4/30/12
Initiated by: AFS-800
AC No: 61-98B
Change:
FOREWORD
This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots and flight instructors to
use in complying with the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 61, 61.56 and the recent flight experience requirements of 61.57. This AC is
particularly directed to General Aviation (GA) pilots holding sport or higher grades of pilot
certificates who wish to maintain currency and to certificated flight instructors (CFI) who give
flight instruction to support such activities. This AC does not apply to training programs or
proficiency checks conducted pursuant to 14 CFR part 121 or 135, nor to curriculums approved
pursuant to 14 CFR part 142.
/s/
for
John M. Allen
Director, Flight Standards Service
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4
1-5.
1-6.
1-7.
Purpose...........................................................................................................................1
Cancellation ...................................................................................................................1
Focus ..............................................................................................................................1
Background ....................................................................................................................1
Pre-Review Considerations............................................................................................7
(1 page)....................................................................................................................1
(1 page)....................................................................................................................1
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1-1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots and
flight instructors to use in complying with the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61, 61.56 and the recent flight experience requirements of
61.57.
1-2. CANCELLATION. This AC cancels AC 61-98A, Currency and Additional Qualification
Requirements for Certificated Pilots, current edition. You can now find information on transition
training in the current edition of FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
1-3. RELATED CFR SECTIONS:
Par 1-1
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
(1) The initial phases of the regulatory review addressed regulations requiring priority
action by the FAA as a result of National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommendations
and other factors. These recommendations addressed requirements such as the flight review
required by 61.56.
(2) That AC provided additional information for pilots and flight instructors to use in
accomplishing flight reviews, but did not address specific maneuvers and procedures, which
pilots should consider for various categories and classes of aircraft. Many comments cited a need
for additional FAA guidance material regarding pilot certification and currency that would
enable the GA public to comply with present currency regulations and to tailor currency
programs to individual pilot needs. The comments also cited a need for increased uniformity in
the conduct of currency programs.
b. Previous Edition of AC 61-98. In 1987, the FAA issued AC 61-98, Scope and Content
of the Biennial Flight Review. That AC provided additional information for pilots and flight
instructors to use in accomplishing flight reviews, but did not address specific maneuvers and
procedures, which should be considered for various categories and classes of aircraft. In addition,
the original intention of AC 61-98 was not to cover other currency regulations or transition
training requirements for pilots who had already received certification. The material previously
contained in AC 61-98 is available in Chapter 2.
c. GA Pilots. As a result of initiatives designed to encourage voluntary compliance with
existing regulations and to maintain and further improve the GA safety record with a minimum
of new regulations, the FAA has determined that updated advisory guidance is necessary with
respect to the currency and qualification needs of GA pilots. The guidance contained in this
version of AC 61-98 provides such information and accomplishes the goals of the flight review
and other currency requirements.
1-7. PERSONAL CURRENCY PROGRAM.
a. Currency Criteria. Pilots should design a currency program tailored to their individual
operating environments and needs. In some cases, pilots may integrate currency criteria with
normal operations to reduce the need for separate currency flights. For example, pilots could
incorporate additional takeoffs and landings or specialized takeoffs and landings (such as short
or soft field) into a previously-scheduled flight. In most cases, pilots should consider the need for
currency beyond that specified by the 14 CFR.
b. FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam). The FAA highly encourages pilots to participate in
the FAASTeams Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS), which includes numerous forms of
training media such as online programs and recommended topics for pilots to review with CFIs.
Additionally the FAASTeam conducts safety seminars which are open to the public.
c. Aviation Publications and Commercially-Developed Materials. Pilots should also
explore the wide range of publications and other commercially-developed materials available for
use in personal currency programs. To ensure staying up to date in regulatory changes and flying
techniques, the FAA also encourages pilots to regularly read aviation periodicals.
Page 2
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4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Pilot examiners,
Pilot schools,
Individual CFIs,
FAASTeam Program Managers, and
FAASTeam representatives.
Par 1-7
Page 3 (and 4)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 2. RECENT FLIGHT EXPERIENCE
2-1. RECENT GENERAL EXPERIENCE. Section 61.57(a) and (b) specifies the minimum
requirements for recent flight experience, specifically takeoffs and landings, in each category and
class of aircraft in order to act as pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft carrying passengers.
a. Requirements Specified in 61.57(a) and (b). Pilots should regard these requirements
as minimums that should be modified to address factors such as overall pilot experience,
different operating environments, complexity of the facilities used, and variations in makes and
models of aircraft within specific categories and classes. For example, a pilot may meet recent
flight experience in a given make and model of aircraft but may have operated only in light or
moderate wind conditions from airports with long runways. The pilot should consider acquiring
additional takeoff and landing experience in stronger wind conditions or at airports with short
runways before acting as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers in similar conditions. Under
some circumstances, the change in the customary operating environment may be great enough
that the pilot should seek flight instruction or refresher training before attempting solo
operations.
b. Basic Currency and Recent Flight Experience. There are many excellent sources of
information available to pilots who wish to enhance currency under a variety of conditions. The
FAA recommends that all pilots participate in WINGS, which provides online courses, seminars,
and guided flight training; and take advantage of free online safety courses such as those offered
by the AOPA Air Safety Foundation.
c. Night Currency Requirements. Night currency requirements deserve additional
consideration. The night experience of most pilots represents only a small portion of their total
flight experience. The impact of marginal weather conditions on night operations is so significant
that pilots should evaluate their own need for both increased currency and additional planning
when contemplating flights under unfavorable conditions at night.
d. Obtaining Currency for each Make and Model. Special considerations apply when
pilots operate aircraft makes and models they do not customarily fly. Analysis of accident data
has shown that accident rates increase for pilots with little or no time-in-type in the aircraft
flown. Section 61.31(e) specifies additional experience requirements for operating high
performance aircraft. For non-high performance small aircraft, basic currency requirements of
61.57(a) and (b) apply only to category and class. For example, a pilot who meets the
requirement in a Cessna 152 would also meet the requirement in a Cessna 172. However, the
FAA recommends that pilots attain currency in each separate make and model before conducting
passenger-carrying operations. This currency should include familiarity with the pilots operating
handbook (POH), the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), and/or any other available information on
that aircraft. The FAA recommends that all pilots obtain a comprehensive checkout in each make
and model aircraft from an appropriately-rated CFI. Airmen are encouraged to search for aircraft
clubs for information and familiarization on specific makes and models.
Par 2-1
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
Page 6
Par 2-1
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AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT REVIEW
3-1. STRUCTURE AND INTENT OF THE FLIGHT REVIEW. With the increasing
complexity of the aviation operating environment, CFIs may want more specific guidance on
how to structure and plan a flight review and develop contents that are specific to the needs of
the pilot under review. The intention of the flight review is to be an industry-managed,
FAA-monitored currency program. The CFI must be aware that the flight review is not a test or
check ride, but an instructional service designed to assess and enhance a pilots knowledge and
skills.
a. Accomplishing a Flight Review. Under 61.56(c) no person may act as PIC of an
aircraft unless within the preceding 24 calendar-months that person has accomplished a
satisfactory flight review in an aircraft for which that pilot is appropriately rated. An
appropriately-rated instructor or other designated person must conduct the flight review. The
purpose of the flight review is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills and aeronautical
knowledge.
b. Completing WINGS (one or more phases). The FAA reminds pilots and CFIs that,
under 61.56(e), a person who has satisfactorily completed one or more phases of the
FAA-sponsored WINGS within the preceding 24 calendar-months does not need to accomplish
the flight review requirements of this section. AC 61-91, WINGS Pilot Proficiency Program,
current edition, describes how CFIs should encourage pilots to participate in WINGS.
c. Completing Proficiency Checks and Ratings. Pilots and CFIs should be aware that,
under 61.56(d), there is no requirement for pilots who have completed certain proficiency
checks and ratings within the preceding 24 calendar-months to accomplish a separate flight
review. These accomplishments include satisfactory completion of pilot proficiency checks
conducted by the FAA, an approved pilot check airman, a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE), or a
U.S. Armed Force for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege. However, the FAA
recommends that pilots consider also accomplishing a review under some of the following
circumstances. For example, a pilot with an Airplane Single-Engine Land (ASEL) rating may
have recently obtained a glider rating, but may still wish to consider obtaining a flight review in
a single-engine airplane if the appropriate 24-month period has nearly expired. When approached
by pilots seeking advice on such matters, CFIs should consider the factors described in the
following paragraphs.
3-2. PRE-REVIEW CONSIDERATIONS. Before undertaking the review, the CFI should
interview the pilot to determine the nature of his or her flying and operating requirements.
Elements to consider should include, but not be limited to, the following areas:
a. Type of Equipment Flown.
(1) Section 61.56(c)(1) states that to act as a PIC, a pilot must accomplish a flight
review in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated. A pilot might hold multiple ratings. In such
case, the pilot may take a flight review in any one of the aircraft for which he or she holds a
rating or operating privilege and they will have met the regulatory requirement for all aircraft for
which they hold a certificate and or rating. For example, a pilot who holds a private pilot
Par 3-1
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
certificate with an ASEL rating and a commercial balloon certificate may take a flight review in
either aircraft and will have met the requirements of the rule for both. However, a pilot may not
take a flight review in an aircraft for which he or she does not hold a rating or operating
privilege. For example, that same ASEL rated pilot may not take a flight review in a Multiengine
Land (MEL) airplane if he or she does not hold an MEL airplane rating. A pilot who holds only a
sport pilot certificate may only take a flight review in a light sport aircraft for which he or she
holds an operational privilege. For example, a sport pilot who holds airplane privileges could not
take the flight review in a Cessna 172 since that airplane is not a light sport airplane and he or
she does not hold operating privileges for that airplane.
(2) The reviewed maneuvers and procedures will vary depending on the category, class,
and make and model of the aircraft used. For example, a review in a light multiengine aircraft
will be different from one conducted in a small, two-seat tailwheel aircraft that utilizes limited
instrumentation. The CFI may wish to recommend that the pilot complete the review in the
aircraft most commonly flown, or in a more complex make and model used if he or she regularly
flies several aircraft. The CFI may also wish to recommend that the pilot take a review in more
than one category/class of aircraft under certain circumstances. For example, a pilot with ASEL
and glider ratings may have flown only gliders in the last 2 years but is also contemplating flying
single-engine airplanes in the near future. If a CFI is approached by a pilot who requests a review
only in the glider, the CFI may wish to recommend an additional review by a qualified person in
a single-engine airplane before the pilot acts as PIC of a single-engine airplane.
b. Nature of Flight Operations. The CFI should consider the type of flying usually done
by the pilot before establishing the review plan for conducting his or her review. For example, a
pilot conducting long-distance flights between busy terminal areas may need a different review
than a pilot who usually flies in the local area from the same airport. The CFI should consider the
need for an in-depth review of certain subjects or procedures if the type of flight operations is
likely to change, or if other extenuating circumstances exist. For example, a pilot who normally
conducts only local flight operations may plan to begin flying to a location with Class B
airspace. Another pilot may only operate a two-seat aircraft without radio but will operate in
close proximity to Class B airspace. In both cases, the CFI should include Class B airspace
operating requirements and procedures in the flight review. This review should also include
pertinent revisions to operational regulations to ensure that the pilot has full knowledge of these
changes.
c. Amount and Recency of Flight Experience. The CFI should review the pilots
logbook to determine total flight time, time-in-type, and recency of experience in order to
evaluate the need for particular maneuvers and procedures in the review. For example, a pilot
who has not flown in several years may require an extensive review of basic maneuvers from the
PTS appropriate to that pilots certificate level. Pilots should pay particular attention to the
special-emphasis areas found in the PTS. The same pilot may also require a more extensive
review of 14 CFR part 91, including changes in airspace and other requirements. Another pilot
who is upgrading to a newer or faster airplane should receive more emphasis on knowledge of
aircraft systems and performance, or in cross-country procedures appropriate to a faster airplane.
Regardless of flight experience, the CFI should ensure that the review plan includes all areas in
which he or she determines that the pilot should receive training in order to operate safely.
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AC 61-98B
In some cases, the CFI may wish to recommend that the pilot accomplishes a complete refresher
program.
d. Agreement on the Conduct of the Review. After completing the above analysis, the
CFI should review these considerations with the pilot and reach an understanding regarding how
he or she will conduct the review. The CFI may wish to provide the pilot with reading materials
or recommend publications for study before actually undertaking the flight review. The CFI
should also review the criteria for satisfactory completion of the review with the pilot.
e. Instructor Qualifications. Instructors should also consider their own experience and
qualifications in a given make and model aircraft prior to giving a review in that model. The CFI
conducting a flight review must hold a category, class, and (if appropriate) type rating on his or
her pilot certificate. Also, the instructor must have a category and class rating on his or her flight
instructor certificate or a sport instructor privilege in his or her logbook appropriate to the
aircraft in which he or she conducts the review. To conduct a flight review in a multiengine
airplane, the instructor must hold an airplane multiengine rating on their pilot and flight
instructor certificates. For aircraft in which the CFI is not current or with which he or she is not
familiar, he or she must obtain recent flight experience or sufficient knowledge of aircraft
limitations, characteristics, and performance before conducting the review. In any case, the CFI
must observe the rating limitations of 61.195(b).
3-3. PLANNING AND RECORDING THE REVIEW. The CFI may wish to use FAAs
online guidance available at www.faa.gov (see Conducting an Effective Flight Review) to
prepare, conduct, and document the flight review. Some of the material from this optional guide
appears in the appendices. After reaching an agreement on how the CFI will conduct the review,
he or she should prepare a plan for completing the review. The plan should include a list of
regulatory subjects that the CFI will cover, the maneuvers and procedures that the pilot will need
to accomplish, the anticipated sequence in which the segments will occur, and the location where
the CFI will perform the review. You can find a suggested plan format in Appendix 1. Although
not required by 61.189, the CFI may wish to retain this plan for an appropriate time period as a
record of the scope and content of the review.
a. Review of Part 91 Operating and Flight Rules. The CFI should tailor the review of
general operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot under review. The objective is to
ensure that the pilot can comply with all regulatory requirements and operate safely in various
types of airspace under an appropriate range of weather conditions. As a result, the CFI should
conduct a review that is broad enough to meet this objective, yet provide a more comprehensive
review in those areas in which the pilots knowledge is weaker. In the latter instance, the CFI
may wish to employ a variety of references/sources, such as the Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM), to ensure that the pilots knowledge meets current standards.
b. Pilot Deviations (PD). The occurrence of incidents and PDs has emphasized the need
to ensure that all pilots receive adequate briefing on PD avoidance awareness. PDs are broadly
categorized as airborne or ground. Airborne PDs include altitude and heading deviations, and
airspace violations. Ground PDs include runway incursions and any other unauthorized operation
in the movement areas of an airport. Pilots should be familiar with all types of airspace, and
Par 3-2
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ground operating procedures, and best practices to avoid potential PDs. The flight review may be
the only regular proficiency and recurrency training experienced by some pilots. Therefore, CFIs
should place appropriate emphasis on this part of the review.
c. Review of Maneuvers and Procedures.
(1) The maneuvers and procedures covered during the review are those which, in the
opinion of the CFI conducting the review, are necessary for the pilot to perform in order to
demonstrate that he or she can safely exercise the privileges of his or her pilot certificate.
Accordingly, the CFI should evaluate the pilots skills and knowledge to the extent necessary to
ensure that he or she can safely operate within regulatory requirements throughout a wide range
of conditions. The CFI should always include abnormal and emergency procedures applicable to
the aircraft flown in the flight review.
(2) The CFI may wish to prepare a preliminary plan for the flight review based on an
interview or other assessment of the pilots qualifications and skills. See Appendix 1 for
suggested interview questions. Appendix 5 provides a sample CFI flight review checklist. The
CFI should outline a sequence of maneuvers to the pilot taking the review. For example, this may
include a cross-country flight to another airport with maneuvers accomplished while en route. It
could also include a period of simulated instrument flight time. The CFI should request that the
pilot conduct whatever preflight preparation is necessary to complete the planned flight. This
preparation should include all items required in part 91, 91.103, such as checking weather,
calculating required runway lengths, calculating Weight and Balance (W&B), completing a
flight log, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection.
(3) Before beginning the flight portion of the review, the CFI should discuss various
operational areas with the pilot. This oral review should include, but not be limited to, areas such
as aircraft systems, speeds, performance, meteorological and other hazards (e.g., windshear and
wake turbulence), operations in controlled airspace, and abnormal and emergency procedures.
The emphasis during this discussion should be on practical knowledge of recommended
procedures and regulatory requirements.
(4) Regardless of the pilots experience, the CFI may wish to review at least those
maneuvers considered critical to safe flight, such as stalls, slow flight, and takeoffs and landings.
Based on his or her in-flight assessment of the pilots skills, the CFI may wish to add other
maneuvers from the PTS appropriate to the pilots grade of certificate. All reviews should
include those areas within the PTS identified as Special Emphasis. Appendix 5 includes a list
of suggested maneuvers. The FAA does not intend this list to be all-inclusive, nor does it limit a
CFIs discretion in selecting other appropriate maneuvers and procedures. To the greatest
possible extent, the CFI should organize and sequence the selected maneuvers in a realistic
scenario appropriate to the kind of flying normally done by the pilot.
(5) The role of the CFI during the review is to provide an evaluation. However, the
instructor is not limited to this role and may provide specific instruction to an airman on any
areas the instructor notes as being weak. This additional instruction does not preclude the pilots
successful completion of the review as long as the deficiencies are corrected. If the additional
instruction does not correct the deficiencies, and/or it becomes apparent to the instructor that
Page 10
Par 3-3
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
additional flights will be necessary, the CFI should discuss the situation with the pilot and
proceed accordingly.
3-4. POST-REVIEW CONSIDERATIONS. Upon completion of the review, the CFI should
complete the summary and evaluation portion of the flight review checklist (if used) and debrief
the pilot. Whether or not the review was satisfactory, the CFI should provide the pilot with a
comprehensive analysis of his or her performance, including suggestions for improving any
weak areas. The current edition of FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook, chapter 5,
provides specific suggestions for conducting the postflight evaluation discussion as a
collaborative critique.
a. Unsatisfactory Completion of the Review. The FAA does not intend the flight review
to be a check ride. If the review is not satisfactory, the CFI should log the flight as dual
instruction given and not as a failure. The CFI should then recommend additional training in
the areas of the review that were unsatisfactory. A pilot who does not receive an endorsement for
a satisfactory flight review may continue to exercise the privileges of his or her certificate,
provided that a period of 24 calendar-months has not elapsed since the pilots last successful
flight review or pilot proficiency check.
b. Satisfactory Completion of the Review. When the applicant has successfully
completed the review, the CFI should endorse the pilots logbook to certify that the pilot has
satisfactorily accomplished the flight review. The CFI should make the endorsement for a
satisfactory review in accordance with AC 61-65. The flight and ground time must also be
logged in the pilots logbook in accordance with 61.51(a)(1).
Par 3-3
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 4. INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK
Par 4-1
Page 13
AC 61-98B
4/30/12
conducts the check under VFR conditions, it is the CFIs responsibility to constantly remain
vigilant to other aircraft throughout all phases of the flight.
(2) The Pilots Instrument Experience Summary in Appendix 6 is available to help the
CFI structure an appropriate ground review for the IPC. A table in FAA-S-8081-4 lists the
maneuvers required for successful completion of the IPC.
(3) As with the flight review, the CFI should develop a plan of action that uses realistic
scenarios to organize and sequence the required tasks and maneuvers. Appendix 8 contains a
sample plan for conducting the proficiency check. The CFI should also discuss crewmember
roles and responsibilities with the pilot.
4-2. IPC-KNOWLEDGE PORTION.
a. Determining the Pilots Knowledge. The CFI should determine that the pilot has
adequate knowledge and understanding of part 91, especially subpart B, Flight Rules; subpart C,
Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements; and subpart E, Maintenance, Preventive
Maintenance, and Alterations. Additionally, the CFI should determine that the pilot has adequate
knowledge and understanding of the following areas:
(1) Instrument en route and approach chart interpretation, including Standard
Instrument Departures (SID), Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), Standard Terminal Arrival
Routes (STAR), and Area Navigation (RNAV)/Global Positioning System (GPS)/wide area
augmentation system (WAAS) procedures.
(2) Obtaining and analyzing weather information, including knowledge of hazardous
weather phenomena such as icing and convective activity.
(3) Preflight planning, including aircraft performance, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
information (including temporary flight restrictions (TFR)), fuel requirements, alternate
requirements, and use of appropriate FAA publications such as the Airport/Facility Directory.
(4) Aircraft systems related to IFR operations, including appropriate operating methods,
limitations, and emergency procedures due to equipment failure.
(5) Aircraft flight instruments and navigation equipment, including characteristics,
limitations, operating techniques and emergency procedures due to malfunction or failure, such
as lost communications procedures.
(6) Determining the airworthiness of the aircraft for instrument flight, including
required inspections and documents.
(7) Air traffic control (ATC) procedures pertinent to flight under IFR with emphasis on
elements of ATC clearances and pilot/controller responsibilities.
b. Evaluation of the Pilots Skills. Following the discussion of the above subjects, the
CFI should ask the pilot to prepare for the skill portion of the IPC by completing the necessary
flight planning, obtaining current weather data, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight
Page 14
Par 4-1
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 1
inspection. In order to fully evaluate the pilots skills under normal operating conditions, the CFI
may wish to have the pilot conduct a short IFR cross-country flight with at least part of the flight
conducted in the system under IFR.
4-3. IPC-SKILL PORTION. The maneuvers and procedures selected for the IPC must include
those listed in Rating Task Table in FAA-S-8081-4. The CFI conducting the IPC has the
discretion to require any other maneuver(s) necessary to determine that the pilot can safely
operate under IFR in a broad range of conditions appropriate to the aircraft flown and the ATC
environment selected. However, in any case, the CFI should pay particular attention to those
areas within the PTS identified as Special Emphasis. The CFI should emphasize proper
adherence to ATC clearances. Regardless of the maneuvers and procedures selected, the CFI
should ensure that the pilot demonstrates satisfactory basic attitude instrument flying skills. For
checks conducted in an airplane but not under actual instrument weather conditions, the CFI
should employ an appropriate view-limiting device to simulate instrument conditions. As an aid
to the CFI, Appendix 8 contains a sample CFI IPC checklist for conducting the IPC.
4-4. POST-IPC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECORDKEEPING. Upon completion of the
proficiency check, the CFI may wish to complete the summary and evaluation portion of the
checklist (if used) and debrief the pilot on the results of the check (satisfactory or unsatisfactory).
Regardless of the determination, the CFI should provide the pilot with a comprehensive analysis
of his or her performance, including suggestions for improving any weak areas. Chapter 5 of
FAA-H-8083-9 provides specific suggestions for conducting the postflight evaluation discussion
as a collaborative critique.
a. Unsatisfactory Performance. As with the flight review, the CFI should not endorse the
pilots logbook to reflect an unsatisfactory IPC. Rather, the CFI should log the session as dual
instruction given.
b. Satisfactory Performance. The endorsement for a satisfactory proficiency check
should be in accordance with AC 61-65. If the CFI uses the sample plan and checklist in
Appendix 8, then he or she may wish to retain the plan as a record of the scope and content of the
competency check, even though not required by 61.189.
Par 4-2
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 1
REVIEW CHECKLIST
Scheduling
Regulatory review
Experience (pilot):
Total time_______Last 6 months_________
Average hours/month__________________
Time Since last flight review____________
Since last instrument proficiency check
(IPC)_______________________________
Aeronautical decisionmaking
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance
and Improvement Plan
Resources list
Sample Pilots Aeronautical History for
Flight Review
Pilot:_______________________________
Certificated flight instructor (CFI):________
Address:____________________________
Phone(s):____________________________
e-mail:______________________________
Pilot Certificate(s):
Private_________Commercial___________
Air transport pilot (ATP)_______________
Flight Instructor______________________
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly_________________
Aircraft used most often________________
Total time______Last 6 months__________
Average hours/month__________________
Experience (flight environment):
Since your last flight review,
logged in:
____________________________________
Day instrument flight rules (IFR)_________
____________________________________
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
____________________________________
Night VFR_________Night IFR_________
Mountainous/Overwater________________
Towered________Non-Towered_________
Type of Flying (external factors):
What percentage of your flying is for:
Pleasure_____Business______Local______
Cross country______
Personal Skills Assessment:
Strengths as a pilot?___________________
____________________________________
Areas for improvement?________________
____________________________________
Aviation goals?_______________________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 2
Pilot
Responsibility:
Cautions:
Aircraft
Basic ( 91.7).
Flight manual, markings, and placards ( 91.9).
Certifications required ( 91.203).
Instrument and equipment requirements ( 91.205).
Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) ( 91.207).
Position lights ( 91.209).
Inoperative instruments and equipment ( 91.213).
Transponder requirements ( 91.215).
Maintenance:
Responsibility ( 91.403).
Maintenance required ( 91.405).
Operation after maintenance ( 91.407).
Maintenance records ( 91.417).
Inspections:
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 2
4/30/12
Airports:
Markings (AIM (chapter 2, section 3)).
Operations (AIM (chapter 4, section 3); 91.125 and 91.126).
Traffic Patterns ( 91.126).
Environment
Airspace:
Altimeter Settings (AIM (chapter 7, section 2); 91.121).
Minimum Safe Altitudes ( 91.119 and 91.177).
Cruising Altitudes (AIM (chapter 3, section 1, paragraph 3-1-5);
91.159 and 91.179).
Speed Limits ( 91.117).
Right of Way ( 91.113).
Formation ( 91.111).
Types of Airspace (AIM (chapter 3)).
Controlled Airspace (AIM (chapter 3, section 2); 91.129, 91.130,
91.131, and 91.135).
Class G Airspace (AIM (chapter 3, section 3).
Special Use (AIM (chapter 3, section 4); 91.133, 91.137, 91.141.
91.143, and 91.145).
Emergency Air Traffic Rules (AIM (chapter 5, section 6); 91.139).
Air Traffic Control & Procedures:
Services (AIM (chapter 4, section 1)).
Radio Communications (AIM (chapter 4, section 2); Pilot/Controller
Glossary).
Clearances (AIM (chapter 4, section 4)).
Procedures (AIM (chapter 5)).
Weather:
External
Pressures
Page 2
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 3
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 4
1. Steep turns (both directions), altitude within 100 feet and airspeed within 10 knots.
2. Power-off stalls (approach to landing) and recovery.
3. Power-on stalls (takeoff/departure) and recovery.
4. Ground reference maneuvers (600 to 1000 AGL).
5. Pattern practice:
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 5
APPENDIX 5. SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKLIST (SIDE 1)
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 5
Page 2
4/30/12
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 6
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly_________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Aircraft used most often________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
For this aircraft:
Total time___________________________
Last 6 months________________________
Average hours/month__________________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 7
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 8
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 8
4/30/12
Page 2
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 9
APPENDIX 9. RESOURCES
http://www.afss.com.
General Aviation Pilots Guide to Preflight Weather Planning, Weather Self-Briefings,
and Weather Decision Making
www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/media/ga_weather_decision_making.pdf.
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 9
14. Risk Management and System Safety Modules:
http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/training/flight_instructor.
15. Risk Management Teaching Tips: www.faa.gov/library/manuals/pilot_risk.
16. Teaching Practical Risk Management (May/June 2005 Issue of FAA Aviation News):
http://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2005.
17. Tools for CFIs (AOPA): http://flighttraining.aopa.org/cfis.
Page 2
4/30/12
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Advisorv
Circular
Subject: RECOMMENDED
STANDARD TRAFFIC
PAiTERNS AND PRACTICES FOR
AERONAUTICAL
OPERATIONS AT
AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING
CONTROL TOWERS
1. PURPOSE.
This advisory circular (AC) calls attention to regulatory requirements and rec6mmended procedures
for aeronauticaloperationsat airports without operating control towers. It recommends traffic patterns
and operational proceduresfor aircraft, lighter than
air, glider, parachute,rotorcraft, and ultralight vehicle
operations where such use is not in conflict with
existing proceduresin effect at thoseairports.
2, CANCELLATION.
AC 90-66, RecommendedStandardTraffic Patterns
for Airplane Operations at Uncontrolled Airports,
datedFebruary27,1975, is cancelled,
3. PRINCIPAL CHANGES.
This AC has been updated to reflect current procedures at airports without operating control towers.
Principal changesinclude: adding on Other Traffic
Pattern section, amendingappendixcharts to remain
consistent with the Airmans Information Manual
(AIM), expanding the Related Reading Material
section from airplane to aeronautical operations, adding definition and referencesto, Common
Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), acknowledging
straight-in approachesare not prohibited but may
be operationally advantageous,and adding a paragraphon wake turbulence.
4. DEFINITIONS.
a. Airports Without Operating Control Towers.
Airports without control towers or an airport with
a control tower which is not operating. These
airports are commonly referred to as non-towered,
uncontrolled,or part-time toweredairports.
b. CommonTraffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF).
A frequency designed for the purpose of carrying
out airport advisory practices while operating to
or from an airport without an operating control
tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM,
Date: 8126193
Initiated by: ATP-230
ACNo.90-66A
6.BACKGROUNDANDSCOPE.
8/26/93
AC !W66A
STANDARD
TRAFFIC
PATTERN.
Airport owners and operators,in coordination with
the FAA, are responsible for establishing traffic
patterns. However, the FAA encourages airport
owners and operators to establish traffic patterns
as recommended in this AC. Further, left traffic
patternsshouldbe establishedexceptwhere obstacles,
terrain, -and noise-sensitive areas dictate otherwise.
Appendix 1 contains diagrams for recommended
standardtraffic patterns.
a. Prior to entering the traffic pattern at an
airport without an operating control tower, aircraft
should avoid the flow of traffic until established
on the entry leg. For example, wind and landing
direction indicators can be checked while at an
altitude above the traffic pattern. When the proper
traffic pattern direction has been determined, the
pilot should then proceed to a point well clear
of the pattern before descending to the pattern
altitude.
b, Arriving aircraft shouldbe at the appropriate
traffic pattern altitude before entering the traffic
pattern. Entry to the downwind leg should be
at a 45-clegree angle abeam the midpoint of the
runway.
PAR
8/26/93
AC 90-66A
8/26/93
AC 90-66A
Page 4
Harold W. Becker
Acting Director, Air Traffic
Rules and Procedures Service
8/2@/SZS
AC
SO-MA
APPENDIX
AIRPORT OPERATIONS
SINGLE RUNWAY
48 .8::
APPLICATION
OF TRAFFIC3
PATTERN
INDICATORS
I4
BASE
STRAIGHT-IN
APPROACH
, ,),
Id
#
.a r
ma .a
LANDING
DIRECTION
INDICATOR
- :)
LANDING
RUNWAY
(OR LANDING
STRIP)
INDICATORS
-
+
d
TRAFFIC
PATTERP
A IA .WAAA
IN
- WINDCONE
PARALLEL RUNWAYS
LEGEND:
STANDARD
--- LEFT-HAND
---~
TRAFFIC PAlTERN
(DEPICTED)
STRAIGHT-IN
-ah&4
RUNWAY
k-1
APPROACH
IT
IECEND:
STANDARD
RIGHTMAND
TRAFFIC PATfERN
(DEPICTED)
KEY
01
03
04
05
06
07
08
8/M/93
9046A
AC
APPENDIX
ULTRALIGHT
OPERATIONS
DOWNWIND
ULTRALIGHT
OPERATING
AREA
FlNAt
ULTRALIGHT
SEPARATE
OPERATING AREA
GLIDER OPERATIONS
GLIDER PATTERN AND POWER
SAME SIDE OF RUNWAY
PATTERN
CUDER
PATTERN
ENTRY
(600- 1,owACl)
+
I-- 600-1,OO~~G~
-5,
.
\,
GLIDER
PATTERN
ENTRY
POWERED
TOWS
EXIT
TO 2,ow - 3,ooo~
AGL UPWIND
RUNWAY
PA7TERN
TOWS TO
ENTRY
600 - 1,000 AGL
I
PAGE
(AND
2)
AC
8/26/93
SO-66A
APPmDix
~~-~
SIDE VIEW
PARACHUTE
I<
OPERATIONS
2 MILES
1 MILE
WINDOW
750
RUNWAY
TOP VIEW
NOTE:
THIS DEPICTS
AN A JRPORT
b U.S.
GOVERNMENT
PRINTING
OFFICE
: 1997
PAOE
II
(AND
2)
800 Independence
Ave., S.W.
Washington,
D.C. 20591
FORWARDING
AU0 RETURN
POSTME
QUARAMTEED
official Businees
Penatty for Prim?0 Use $300
Appendix 2
Inoperative Equipment
Flow Chart
91.213
Yes
MEL?
No
Use MEL
91.205
VFR Day
Type
Certificate
Kinds of
Operation
List (POH
Sect. 2)
Airworthiness
Directives
(AD)
PIC
Decision
Remove
Equipment list
and W&B must
be updated by
MX.
OR
Placard &
Deactivate
Must be repaired
@ next
inspection (See
91.405(c))
11/19/11
AOPA Online: AOPA Online Members Only - Aviation Subject Report - CFI Q
AOPA
CFI Q&A: Pri ileges and Limitations
Thi. i. a .
a
f he
c
Pi I f
a i Ce e , 800/872-2672.
F
CFI e e a
e i
a da
Question: Ca a CFI e e ci e he
a he a i g?
Ans. er: Ye , acc di g
e ,
he ha
ed ce ifica ed f igh i
f a f igh i
14 CFR 61.429, if
(CFI)
ce ifica e
h d a a id a d c
a i g,
a d
f ai c af bei g f
he CFI h
ea e i i he AOPA Ai Safe F
i i ege
i
c ce ifica e i h a
i
ce ifica e, i he ca eg
a dca
Q: Ca a CFI,
ided ai i g
ih
e
a
e i
da i
iha
he
i
c
ei f
ai
c a ifica i
, ca
he AOPA
f igh i
f
.F
a i g if he CFI h d a f igh i
ce ifica e, a d ee
i g f
ficie c
e e ci e he
ided
ce ifica e
i i ege
a e a ed,
ih
f a f igh
f igh i
.
a a ic a
de , e d
e he
de '
gb
-c
f igh ?
idi g he e d
e e
de e i e he
de ' f igh e a a i , a
ed f igh
de he e i i g c di i
a d i hi a
i iai
i ed i
he afe
f he f igh .
Q: H
d e a CFI ai a
de f f igh i a i g e- ea ai c af ?
A: Acc di g 14 CFR 61.195(g), ef igh ai i g
ha e bee
ca eg , c a , a d
e, if a
ia e.
ided i a ai c af ha ha
ai
a di
i g,
he
f he a e
Q: Ca a CFI h i
a CFII
ide i
e i
ci
ada i
e a i g?
A: N . Acc di g 14 CFR 61.195(c), a f igh i
c
h
ide i
e f igh ai i g f he i
a ce f a i
e ai g
h d
a i
e ai g
hi /he f igh i
c ce ifica e a d i ce ifica e a
ia e
he ca eg
a dca
f ai c af bei g
ided f he
i
f igh
ai i g.
ci f c
e ai
hi e hi e e
i ed ha he c
e a i a CFI ecei
c i . The ef e, f igh i
ci i
dca
edica ce ifica e i e i ed
e i ed e e ci e he i i ege f
Q: Ca a CFI
ide i
ci f c
e
A: Ye , acc di g 14 CFR 61.23(b)(5), a
ai
ga
hi e i h
he CFI i
i ga i i c
a d (PIC) i h
a hi d c a
edica ce ifica e?
e f f igh i
ci i
c
e ai f
i i g he ai c af b i a he
c
ide ed a "c
e cia
e a i " a d a ec d c a
edica i
e e ci e i i ege f a c
e cia i ce ifica e ( hich i
i e i ed f
CFI ce ifica e.
edica ce ifica e?
e i g a PIC d i g he f igh ,
a a e
i ed f igh c e
e be .
Q: Ca a CFII
ide i
e i
ci i a
ie gi e ai a e if he
he i
a
ie gi e i
c (MEI)?
A: Ye , if he i
c a
ha
ie gi e i i ege
hi /he i ce ifica e. The i
c
i i ege "I
e -Ai a e" i
ca eg
ca
ecific a d a be ed f a
e f ai a e, a
g a he i
c ha he e i i ege
hi /he i ce ifica e. N e ha i
ca e, he i
i i ed
ecific a d
a be
ed f
i i ege
ie gi e
a
www.aopa.org/members/files/topics/cfi_qna.html
ci
i a
hi /he i
i i ege
e f ai
a e, a
ie gi e ai
c
hi /he
ga
a e, a d
ie gi e
ce ifica e gi e a i
i
ce ifica e. The i
he i
ha
he e
e
c
a e
a be a gh .
i i ege
hi /he
e -Ai
i
a d
hi
a e" i
ie gi e
ca eg
a d
ce ifica e.
1/2
11/19/11
AOPA Online: AOPA Online Members Only - Aviation Subject Report - CFI Q
. : Can a CFI with single-engine-only privileges on his/her instructor certificate give a flight review in a multiengine airplane?
A: No. According to 14 CFR 61.56(c)(1), only an authorized instructor may conduct a flight review. Since a flight review requires one hour of flight
instruction, it requires a multiengine instructor to conduct the flight review. To provide flight instruction, a flight instructor must have appropriate
category, class, and type (if appropriate) privileges on his/her flight instructor certificate.
. : When providing instruction for a high-performance endorsement, does the aircraft have to have an engine that is over 200 horsepower?
A: Yes, according to 14 CFR 61.31(f), the airplane must have an engine with more than 200 horsepower in order to qualify as high performance.
Note: A complex airplane endorsement [14 CFR 61.31(e)] is needed to operate an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a
controllable-pitch propeller or, in case of a seaplane, flaps and a controllable-pitch propeller. The training and endorsement required by 14 CFR
61.31 (f)(1) is not required if the person has logged flight time as a pilot in command of a high-performance airplane, or in a flight simulator or flight
training device that is representative of a high-performance airplane prior to August 4, 1997.
. : When providing instruction for a high-altitude endorsement, must the CFI be high-altitude qualified?
A: Yes, if the required instruction will be in an airplane and the CFI will be serving as PIC, the CFI must have a high-altitude endorsement (unless
grandfathered in under 14 CFR 61.31[g][3]). If the training is conducted in an approved simulator, then the CFI need not be high-altitude qualified.
: When providing training for a high-altitude multiengine airplane, must the CFI be a multiengine instructor?
A: No, the high-altitude endorsement is not airplane type specific, and the CFI need not be a multiengine instructor.
: When providing instruction for a tailwheel endorsement, must the CFI be tailwheel qualified (have a tailwheel endorsement or be grandfathered
under the provisions under 14 CFR 61.31)?
A: Yes, if the instructor is acting as PIC during the flight training, he/she will need to be tailwheel qualified.
: Can a CFI who is not tailwheel qualified administer a flight review in a tailwheel airplane?
A: Yes, as long as the CFI is not serving as PIC.
: In order to recommend an applicant for an initial CFI certificate, the instructor must meet the experience requirements of FAR 61.195(h)(2)(iv)
(200 hours of instruction time and 24 months as a CFI). Is this required to recommend an applicant for additional CFI ratings?
A: No, only for an initial CFI certificate.
: Can someone apply for a CFII certificate before getting his or her CFI?
A: Yes, if you only wish to do instrument instruction and instrument proficiency checks. Note: The holder of a flight instructor certificate with only
Instrument-Airplane will not be permitted to do flight reviews or provide primary instruction toward a certificate.
: I have a flight instructor certificate with only "Airplane-Multiengine" privileges. Does this mean I can also instruct in a single-engine aircraft?
A: No, you may not. To provide instruction in single-engine airplanes, you must have the appropriate category and class privileges on your instructor
certificate.
: My flight instructor certificate only specifies Airplane-Single Engine; does this mean I can instruct in a single-engine seaplane?
A: Yes, if you have at least commercial privileges, Single Engine Sea on your pilot certificate.
: I have a CFI certificate and want to get a ground instructor certificate. How can I do this?
A: According to 14 CFR 61.213, you will have to take the appropriate knowledge test for the ground instructor rating sought. (The knowledge test on
the fundamentals of instructing is not required if you already hold a ground or flight instructor certificate.) For example, if you want an instrument
ground instructor certificate, you would take the instrument knowledge test. Present your test results and CFI certificate to a FSDO inspector, and
you will be issued a temporary ground instructor certificate. Your permanent certificate will arrive in the mail from the FAA Airman Certification
Branch.
: How do I become a "Gold Seal" flight instructor?
A: The procedures are outlined on page 8 of AC 61.65E. Basically, you must have recommended at least 10 people for practical tests within the
previous 24 months. You must have at least an 80-percent pass rate on the practical tests. In addition, you will need to have a ground instructor
certificate with an advanced or instrument rating. Present all supporting documentation to a FSDO inspector. (You will need to call ahead and make
an appointment.) The inspector will issue you a temporary CFI certificate. Your permanent Gold Seal flight instructor certificate will be mailed from
the FAA Airman Certification Branch. Note: If you don't have a ground instructor certificate, you may perform the steps listed above for a ground
instructor certificate at the same time you are applying for your Gold Seal CFI certificate.
www.aopa.org/members/files/topics/cfi_qna.html
Frederick, MD 21701
Phone 800/872-2672
Fax 301/695-2375
2/2
