I N TEMPORE
SUEBORU M
E L TIEMPO D E LOS SUEVOS
E N L A GALLAECIA ( 4 1 1 - 5 8 5 )
EL PRIMER REINO MEDIEVAL DE OCCIDENTE
VOLUMEN DE ESTUDIOS
Deputación Provincial de Ourense
presidente: José Manuel Baltar Blanco
© de la edición: Deputación Provincial de Ourense, 2018
© de los textos: sus autores
© de las ilustraciónes: sus autores
coordinador de la publicación: Jorge López Quiroga
produción editorial: Armonía Universal – Ourense
diseño gráfico, maqueta y portada: B l a u – Ourense
Impresión: Imprenta Mundo – A Coruña
isbn: 978-84-16643-18-9
depósito legal: ou 400-2018
[Obra incluida en el plan de publicaciones de la Diputación de Ourense 2017]
ÍNDICE
CAPÍTULO I
¿Invasiones o migraciones?
1. Guy Halsall (Universidad de York)
Barbarian Migrations and the Birth of Medieval Europe: From Unity to Diversity.
15
2. Michael Kulikoski (Universidad Estatal de Pennsylvania)
The Invasions of 405-407: The Beginning of the End?
23
CAPÍTULO II
Las gentes barbarae entre los siglos iv y vi: entre el mito y la realidad
3. Walter Pohl (Academia Austriaca de Ciencias/Universidad de Viena)
The Military Transformation of the Roman World.
31
4. Eduard Droberjar (Universidad de Opole)
The emergence of the Suevi and further developments in Bohemia.
35
5. Jaroslav Tejral (Universidad de Masaryk)
Suebi north of the Middle Danube.
45
6. Michel Kazanski (cnrs-Colegio de Francia)-Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma
de Madrid) – Patrick Périn (Museo Arqueológico Nacional de Francia, Saint-Germain-en-Laye/Universidad
de París I-Panteón-Sorbona)
Le costûme féminin «princier» de tradition germanique orientale à l’époque des Grandes Migrations
en Espagne et en Gaule du sud et ses réminiscences dans le Royaume Hispano-Wisigothique.
61
7. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) – Natalia Figueiras Pimentel
(Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla)
La orfebrería de los «príncipes bárbaros». Estudio de las técnicas de fabricación en oro y plata de los ajuares
funerarios (siglos i-vii).
85
8. Ian Wood (Universidad de Leeds)
Britania and the Barbarians.
99
9. Michel Kazanski (cnrs-Colegio de Francia) – Anna Mastykova (Academia de Ciencias de Rusia, Moscú)
La tombe de Hochfelden (Alsace, France).
109
CAPÍTULO III
In tempore sueborum. El tiempo de los suevos en la Gallaecia
iii. 1. El Regnum sueborum
10. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid).
Los Suevos y el Reino Suevo. Un viaje historiográfico y un preámbulo para una historia sin principio.
119
11. Pablo de la Cruz Díaz Martínez (Universidad de Salamanca)
Requiario (448-456): Un rey para un reino frustrado.
129
12. Leila Rodrigues da Silva (Universidad Federal de Río de Janeiro)
Monarquia e Igreja na Gallaecia na segunda metade do século vi.
135
13. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
El I y II Concilios de Braga y el «Parroquial Suevo». Élites eclesiásticas y control del territorio en la Gallaecia del siglo vi.
139
14. Ruth Pliego (Universidad de Sevilla).
La moneda sueva: un destello fugaz en la historia monetaria de Gallaecia.
145
15. Fernando López Sánchez (Wolfson College, Oxford)
El tipo monetal visigodo de victoria con palma y guirnalda acuñado en hispania:
buscando la destrucción del reino suevo de Miro (572-584).
157
iii. 2. Poblamiento y territorio en la Gallaecia de época sueva
16. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
Hábitat, poblamiento y territorio en la Gallaecia de época sueva.
163
iii. 2.1. Los asentamientos fortificados de altura
17. Rafael M. Rodríguez Martínez (Servicio de Arqueología, Diputación de Pontevedra)
«Cuando los muertos descansaban en la arena»: El yacimiento a lanzada en la tardo-antigüedad (Sanxenxo, Pontevedra).
181
18. Felipe Arias Vilas (Museo do Castro de Viladonga, Lugo /Facultad de Humanidades,
Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus de Lugo)
O Castro de Viladonga como asentamento tardorromano.
187
19. Xullo Rodríguez González (Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Ourense)
O conxunto arqueolóxico-natural de Santomé en época tardo-romana y tardo-antiga.
191
20. Brais X. Currás (Universidad de Coimbra)
Recintos fortificados de cronología indeterminada en el valle del Baixo Miño: Apuntes para una interpretación histórica.
195
21. Luis O. Fontes (Universidade do Minho, Braga)
O sítio arqueológico da Falperra (Braga).
201
22. Manuel Luis Real (Universidad de Oporto/Universidad Nueva de Lisboa) – António Manuel Silva
(Universidad de Oporto/Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Portumcale Castrum Novum na época sueva.
205
23. Teresa Soeiro (Universidad de Oporto)
O Castro de Monte Mozinho (Penafiel, Porto) e o seu aro em época tardo-romana e tardo-antiga.
211
24. José Carlos Sastre Blanco – Patricia Fuentes Melgar (Asociación Zamora Protohistórica)
El Castillón (Santa Eulalia de Tábara, Zamora): Un asentamiento fortificado tardo-antiguo
en la frontera del Regnum Suevorum.
217
25. Alberto Garín (Universidad Francisco Marroquín)- Felipe Asenjo (Universidad Europea de Madrid).
Bergidum (Castro Ventosa, El Bierzo, León).
223
iii. 2.2. Los núcleos urbanos principales y las aglomeraciones secundarias
26. Enrique González Fernández (Servicio Municipal de Arqueología, Ayuntamiento de Lugo)
Lucus Augusti en época tardo-romana.
229
27. Manuela Martins – Jorge Ribeiro – Fernanda Magalhães – Raquel Martínez Peñín
(Universidade do Minho, Braga)
Braga em época tardo romana e tardo antiga.
235
28. Manuela Martins (Universidade do Minho, Braga)
A ocupação tardo antiga da área do teatro de Bracara Augusta.
241
29. Vitorino García Marcos (Servicio de Arqueología, Ayuntamiento de León) – Ángeles Sevillano Fuentes
(Servicio de Arqueología, Astorga)
Legio (León) y Asturica Augusta (Astorga) en época tardo-romana y tardo-antigua.
247
30. Pedro Mateos Cruz (Instituto de Arqueología de Mérida-csic)
La Mérida tardorromana: de capital de la diocesis hispaniarum a sede temporal de la monarquía sueva.
253
31. Maria do Rosário Morujão (Facultad de Letras, Universidad de Coimbra)
Lamego no tempo dos Suevos.
259
32. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
Conimbriga en época sueva. Evolución y transformación de una ciuitas romana en la Antigüedad Tardía.
263
33. José María Eguileta Franco (Departamento de Arqueología, Ayuntamiento de Ourense)
Auria en época tardo-romana.
269
34. Silvia González Soutelo (Universidad de Vigo, Facultad de Historia, Campus de Ourense)
El enclave de Tude/Tudae entre el período romano y altomedieval.
273
35. José Suárez Otero (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Iria Flavia: de puerto romano a centro de poder suevo.
277
iii. 2.3. El ámbito rural
36. Álvaro Rodríguez Resino
El yacimiento de ‘Adro Velho’ (O Grove, Pontevedra).
283
37. José Carlos Sánchez Pardo (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
La ocupación tardo-antigua del yacimiento de A Cidadela (Sobrado dos Monxes, A Coruña).
287
38. Silvia González Soutelo (Universidad de Vigo, Facultad de Historia, Campus de Ourense)
El yacimiento de Moraime (Muxía, A Coruña).
291
39. Avelino Gutiérrez González (Universidad de Oviedo)
El territorio y poblamiento rural asturleonés en época sueva y visigoda.
299
40. Margarita Fernández Mier (Universidad de León)
Asturias en época tardo-antigua.
305
41. Paula Ballesteros Arias (Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, incipit-csic-Santiago de Compostela).
Una aproximación al estudio del paisaje agrario en Galicia en época sueva.
309
iii. 3. El comercio en la Gallaecia de época sueva
42. Adolfo Fernández Fernández (Universidad de Vigo, Facultad de Historia, Campus de Ourense)
El comercio en el noroeste peninsular en época tardo-antigua (siglos iv al vii).
317
43. Enrique Alcorta Irastorza (Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Lugo)
Panorámica breve de los procesos de producción/distribución/comercialización de materiales cerámicos de Lucus Augusti.
331
44. Rui Morais (Universidad de Oporto) – Mario Barroca (Universidad de Oporto)
Braga e Falperra na época sueva: dois sítios, uma sede.
343
iii. 4. La edilicia cristiana en la Gallaecia de época sueva
45. Artemio M. Martínez Tejera (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
La «influencia oriental» en la arquitectura cristiana de Gallaecia in Tempore Sueborum.
349
46. Justino Maciel (Instituto de Historia del Arte, Universidad Nueva de Lisboa)
Existe uma arte sueva?
359
47. Antonio Rodríguez Colmenero (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Santa Eulália de Bóveda: trazos cronológicos en la evolución de una edificación sacra a lo largo de la Antigüedad Tardía.
363
48. Antonio Rodríguez Colmenero (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
El oratorio paleocristiano de Ouvigo (Os Blancos, Ourense): breve revisión.
365
49. Rebeca Blanco-Rotea (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela/Universidade do Minho, Braga)
Un pequeño edificio del siglo vi oculto bajo la basílica de la Ascensión (Santa Mariña de Aguas Santas, Ourense).
367
50. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) – Natalia Figueiras Pimentel
(Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla)
Ecclesia edificata inter alpes roccas nominata. El complejo rupestre de San Pedro de Rocas (Esgos, Ourense).
373
51. José Avelino Gutiérrez González (Universidad de Oviedo)
El conjunto cultual cristiano de Marialba de la Ribera (Villaturiel, León).
395
52. Pedro Mateos Cruz (Instituto de Arqueología de Mérida)
El complejo cultual cristiano de Santa Eulalia de Mérida.
399
53. Luis O. Fontes (Universidade do Minho, Braga)
O sítio arqueológico de Dume (São Martinho).
403
54. J. A. Gonçalves Guimarães (Núcleo museológico ‘Solar Condes de Resende’)
O edif ício de tradição romana sob a igreja do Bom Jesus de Gaia (Vila Nova de Gaia – Portugal)
destruído nos últimos dias do reino dos Suevos.
409
55. Lino A. Tavares Dias (Universidad de Oporto)
A igreja tardo-antiga em Tongobriga (Freixo, Marco de Canaveses, Porto).
413
iii. 5. El mundo funerario en la Gallaecia de época sueva
56. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
Redimensionando el estudio del mundo funerario tardo-antiguo. Pervivencia y transformación en los ritos
y prácticas mortuorias en la Gallaecia de época sueva.
421
57. José Suárez Otero (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Compostela, Santiago y los confines del reino suevo.
439
58. Patricia Valle Abad (Universidad de Vigo, Facultad de Historia, Campus de Ourense)
La necrópolis medieval de la capilla de San Salvador das Rozas (Medeiros, Monterrei, Ourense).
443
59. Silvia González Soutelo (Facultad de Historia, Campus de Ourense, Universidad de Vigo)
El yacimiento de Currás-Tomiño.
447
60. Andreia Arezes (Universidad de Oporto)
Beiral do Lima: uma necrópole do século V no território da Gallaecia.
453
61. Francisco Javier Heras Mora (Servicio de Arqueología, Junta de Extremadura) – Ana Belén Olmedo Gragera
Rechila, rex suevorum, emeritam ingreditur. La sedes regia de Mérida a través de sus princesas.
457
62. Jorge López Quiroga (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid)
Las laudas funerarias con la representación del orante y la estola: Élites eclesiásticas, jerarquía y territorio
en la Gallaecia tardo-antigua.
461
63. Olalla López Costas (Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Salud y dieta en la Gallaecia de los siglos iii al viii a través de los esqueletos.
469
64. Celia Chaves Rodríguez (Universidad de Extremadura)
Salud y enfermedad a través de los indicadores patológicos de la necrópolis tardo-antigua de Mérida.
477
The Emergence of the Suebi and Further Developments in Bohemia
Eduard Droberjar (Universidad de Hradec Králové)
he beginning of the Elbe Germanic tribe of the Suebi in the territory of Germany is shrouded with mystery, similar to other ethnic groups in Ancient History.
The oldest written and archaeological sources date to the first half of the 1st century
BC (Peschel 1978b). During the Gallic Wars, C. Julius Caesar originally mentioned
only the Suebi but later made reference to the Marcomanni (Bell. Gall. I, 51). He
believed the Suebi to be «by far the largest and the most warlike nation among the
Germans. It is said that they have a hundred cantons, from each of which they draw
one thousand armed men yearly for the purpose of war outside their borders.» They
lived mostly on milk and meat and spent a lot of time hunting. Caesar reports that
they wore no clothes apart from small cloaks of reindeer hide, which left a great part
of the body bare and «suffer no importation of wine whatever, believing that men
are thereby rendered soft and womanish for the endurance of hardship» (Bell. Gall.
IV, 1–2). Although some of Caesar’s statements tend towards exaggeration, it was
he, after all, who met and fought with them.
Around 72 BC during which time Spartacus’s resurgence culminated in Italy
and Pompey and Crassus became consuls, the Suebi, led by Ariovistus, first crossed
the River Rhine. Initially comprising 15,000 men, their numbers increased to
around 120,000 as they approached Gaul (Bell. Gall. I, 31). In the 60s and 50s BC,
the Suebi, again led by Ariovistus, attacked the Gallic territories to the south and
west of the Rhine (Bell. Gall. I, 31). The Rhine thus became a divisionary, ethnic
border between the Celts (Gauls) and the Germans. The Suebi assisted the Celtic
tribes of the Arverni and Sequani in defeating the Aedui (another Celtic tribe) in
Sequani territory at the Battle of Magetobriga in 61 or 60 BC (Bell. Gall. I, 31). Intent
on gaining more territory, the Suebi later turned against their allies, the Sequani,
and seized a third of their territory in Eastern France between the rivers Saône and
Rhone and the Jura mountains. In addition to the contingent led by Ariovistus, the
Gaul territories were also threatened by Suebi units led by the brothers Nasuas and
Cimberius who fought against the Treveri (Bell. Gall. I, 37). The Celts, especially the
Aedui, were forced to seek help from the Romans, who hesitated for a long time.
Finally, after unsuccessful negotiations between Caesar’s messengers and Ariovistus, and particularly following the collapse of Caesar’s meeting with the leader of
the Suebi, the Romans were compelled to curb the Suebian expansionism. Caesar’s
detailed account of the relations with the Suebi culminates with the description of
the battle in the summer of 58 BC between the Romans and Germans (Bell. Gall.
I, 48–54), which ended with the defeat of Ariovistus near Mulhouse (Mühlhausen) in Alsace. The Suebian king saved himself by escaping. Caesar describes the
first Suebian king; Ariovistus (rex Germanorum) in less than favourable terms (Bell.
Gall. I, 31), calling him a «passionate, reckless barbarian» who was considered to be
«exercising a proud and cruel tyranny». On the other hand, the Romans called him
a «friend of the Roman nation» (Bell. Gall. I, 43).
The Suebi were described differently, however, according to the accounts of
various ancient authors. Strabo (Geógrafika VII, 1) considered them «a federation of
tribes», to which the Marcomanni and the Quadi belonged. The Roman historian
Tacitus also refers to them (Germ. 38) as a federation of tribes, among whose numbers belonged the Semnones, Lombards, Hermunduri, Varisci, Marcomanni, Quadi
and Marsigni. A characteristic identifying feature of certain Suebi was the so-called
Suebian knot (nodus Suebicus), which consisted of hair combed from the forehead
T
and tied into a knot on the side (Krierer 2002; Haak 2007). Around the year 150
AD, Claudius Ptolemy (Geógrafiké II, 11) makes reference to the «Suevi Langobardi,
Suevi Angili and Suevi Semnones», while also assuming the Marcomanni and Quadi
all belonged to a single Suebian federation.
It is not always easy to discern and identify the individual Elbe Germanic tribes.
They are often confused for each other (mainly the Suebi, Marcomanni, Quadi and
Hermunduri). Various classic authors used different ways of denoting, interpreting
and localising them. Indeed, terms describing groups were a general source of confusion throughout the entire Roman period. Another problematic factor is their frequent relocation, or, more precisely, the migration of certain factions within tribes.
Classical authors often only reserved attention for certain factions of tribes or for
important political events. Adding to the confusion, the Suebi referred to themselves as Marcomanni, Quadi and other tribes.
Archaeologically, the Suebi are associated with the Elbe Germanic cultural
sphere (Godłowski 1970: 59-89; Peschel 1978a; Mildenberger-Beck 1989; Völling
2005), and geographically with a large area stretching from Hamburg to River Ipeľ
in Slovakia. Within this expanse, various Suebian tribes lived from the late La Tène
period through the Roman era to the beginning of the Migration period until the
departure of the Suebi from the middle Danube area to Spain and Portugal. Suebian
sites from the time of the Roman Empire can be found in several European countries (Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia and parts of Hungary).
Archaeological records locate the beginnings of the Suebi tribe to their original
homeland in the Middle Elbe area. A wide central swathe of Germany comprising
Saxony-Anhalt and Turingia is acknowledged as the birthplace of the Elbe Germanic Suebi. Here, the oldest archaeological monuments of the Elbe Germans from the
1st century BC have been found (Peschel 1978a; Meyer 2009). We refer to them as
the Großromstedt Culture (GRC) by the Central German burial site at Großromstedt, Kr. Apolda, in the Federal State of Thuringia (Eichhorn 1927; Peschel 1991,
2005). The site was researched over a hundred years ago. GRC lasted approximately
one hundred years (85/80 BC-15/20 AD). It comprised three developmental stages (GRC 1–3) and represents the oldest Suebian culture (Peschel 1968; Rieckhoff
1995: 151–168; Droberjar 2006a, 2006b). The best way to learn about their material culture at the time of their crossing the Rhine and settling in Gaul is to study
the archaeological excavations of fire burials in central Germany (in particular the
burial sites in Schkopau and Großromstedt). These sites are concentrated mainly
along the River Saale, between the Thüringer Wald, Harz Fläming and the KrkonoŠe
Mountains (Schmidt-Nitzschke 1989; Peschel 2005; Grasselt 2007). In this area the
Suebi came in contact with the original Celtic inhabitants as well as with the invasive Przeworsk culture of the Germanic Lugii (Bockius-Łuczkiewicz 2004: 99–101,
197–198, map 34 and 39; Meyer 2005; 2008: 150–193; 2009a), which is now Polish
territory. In central Germany, the burials of Suebian warriors in clay urns are frequently found. The most prominent warriors were cremated in bronze Roman urns
and buried with swords. Iron, and less frequently, bronze bow-shaped late La Tène
fibulas were placed in the graves. Each grave contained a single fibula, which was
fastened to the warrior’s cloak. Such finds, as well as many settlements, were discovered. There are many instances of such finds as well as of settlements. This attests
that the culture gradually expanded, mainly to the south and east.
35
The Suebi of the Rhine from an archaeological
perspective.
Maroboduus’s empire and the Marcomanni – the
first Suebian empire.
Elbe Germanic finds from the time after Ariovistus’s campaign across the Rhine
in southern Germany and France are rare (Meyer 2009b). More sites with Suebian finds in the area of the Lower Rhine date to the beginning of the Augustinian
period (Lenz-Bernhard-Bernhard 1991; Bemmann 2007). The Upper-Rhein Suebi/Oberrheinsueben (Ament 1999) and the Neckar Suebi/Neckarsweben/Suebi
Nicretes (Dobiአ1964: 90) were those that lived in an area extending from a burial
site at Diersheim (Nierhaus 1966) through various settlements containing typical
sunken huts with hexagonal bearing stakes at a site in Seckenheim-Suebenheim
near Mannheim to sites on the River Main (Mainsweben). Grave finds containing
typical Suebian artefacts (especially Elbe Germanic pottery, belt fittings and militaria) along the Rhineland date to the period following the decline of Maroboduus’s empire and the Early Roman period (50–150 AD). Several German researchers
opt for the «out-of-Bohemia theory» (Schlegel 2000: 165–167) to explain the Suebi
migration westwards from Bohemia after the fall of Maroboduus’s empire to the
territories where their ancestors had fought with the Celts and with the Romans a
century before.
The founder of the oldest Suebian (Germanic) empire (federation of tribes) where
the Marcomanni had a dominant position, was Maroboduus (also Marbod, Marobod or Marobud). He is also considered the first great ruler of the territory of
Bohemia. Although Maroboduus came from a noble Marcomanni family, no further details about his background, his appearance or his closest relatives are known.
What is known is that he spent his early years in Rome (Geógrafika VII, 1), perhaps
as a hostage, and received an education at Augustus’s court.
Upon returning to the territory of wider central Germany from Rome, he led a
substantial part of his Marcomanni compatriots eastwards to Bohemia between 9
and 6 BC (Germ. 42; Vell. Pat. II, 108). It is assumed that in addition to the Marcomanni, Maroboduus brought along groups of other small tribes, such as the Marsigni, the mysterious Bateini and Corconti and possibly others (Dobiአ1964: 90).
The Marsigni are mentioned only once in written sources by Tacitus (Germ. 43).
Along with the Cotini, Osi and Buri, they were believed to have supported the Marcomanni and the Quadi. Indeed, it is assumed that they were eventually subsumed
by the Marcomanni (Dobiአ1964: 174). The consensus on where the Marsigni lived
is uncertain, but the most likely theory is that they dwelled in an area west of the
Cotini; either in central Moravia or in northeast Bohemia (Kolendo 2008: 157). This
author assumes that the exact location is in east Bohemia in Malá Haná, which is
supported both by new finds from the Early Roman period and finds from the vicinity of the south-Moravian Marcomanni settlement.
The original Suebian inhabitants who had come to Bohemia in the first migration wave gradually assimilated with the newcomers. Given that the Quadi also
lived in Bohemia and that the mysterious Quadi king Tudrus was Maroboduus’s
contemporary (Germ. 42), it is reasonable to conjecture that he also lived in the territory of Bohemia. Continuity with the previous period is attested by the on-going
discoveries of cremation burial sites (especially Tišice and Třebusice) from the period starting in the second half of the 1st century BC and finishing in the beginning
of the 1st century AD. Apart from the Marcomanni and the «older» Suebi (Quadi?),
Maroboduus’s empire also comprised the Hermunduri, Semnones and Lombards,
including various small tribes, as well as a group known as the Eastern Germans,
or Lugii, in the territory of Poland (Przeworsk culture). Maroboduus eventually
subsumed all, whereby communities of noblemen in various tribes were gradually
subdued and bound by covenants (Vell. Pat. II, 108).
The first Suebi Empire in Central Europe at the turn of the millennium occupied an approximate territory stretching from the rivers Elbe, Danube and Visla to
the Baltic Sea, with its centre in Bohemia (Droberjar 2009). Very little is known
either about the internal structure of Maroboduus’s empire or its precise geography,
area and economic hinterland, but it is regarded as the oldest formation of a functioning German proto-state. It is clear that the society was differentiated, which is
attested by some of the rich cremation graves (Dobřichov-Pičhora, Holubice, Zliv;
Droberjar 1999) and early bone burials. Although many graves and burial sites have
been unearthed, relatively few settlements have been identified (Droberjar 2006b).
The core of Maroboduus’s empire was in central Bohemia, where most localities
and finds are concentrated, including large quantities of Roman imports (bronze
vessels, bow fibulas, belt fittings, militaria and so on). There also lay Maroboduus’s
seat, Marobudon/Μαρόβυδον (Geógrafiké II, 11.4), where Roman traders, lixae and
negotiatores were believed to have stayed (Ann. II, 62).
With the rising power of the Suebian Empire, there was a growing concern
among the Romans of possible endangerment. Maroboduus’s army, most likely only
its Marcomannian units, comprised 70,000 foot soldiers and 4,000 horsemen (Vell.
The expansion of the Suebi to Bohemia.
Following the Suebian raid on the Rhineland and their retreat to their original
settlements, they expanded once more to the east (Bohemia) and partly the south
(Main region) during the second half of the 1st century BC (Peschel 1978a: 76, fig. 5;
Völling 1992; Droberjar 2006a). A massive migration wave of Elbe Germans (Suebi),
who typified the Großromstedt culture (the Plaňany group of the GRC), annexed
the most fertile areas in Bohemia along the Elbe (in north-west, central and parts of
eastern Bohemia). There is also evidence of intensive settlements in south Bohemia
at the lower end of the Vltava river (Droberjar 2006a: 78, fig. 49). Bohemia had
been depopulated since the exodus of the Celts (the Boii) and the newcomers encountered only groups of the remaining original population. In Bohemia, the Suebi
established unfortified lowland settlements with sunken huts of a typical hexagonal
or similar construction (Droberjar 2006a: 61, fig. 38). The society was relatively homogeneous, which is attested by cremation burials without any documents of social
differentiation. At burial sites in Tišice (Motyková-Šneidrová 1963) and Třebusice
(Droberjar 2006a: 56, 62, 64) consisting of small clusters of graves, warriors are
buried (mainly with lance and arrow points, shields and, in rare cases at Stehelčeves,
long double-edged swords; Droberjar 2006a: 50, fig. 28:1) as well as women and
children. The typical pottery included sharply profiled, footed beakers known as
Plaňany beakers (Motyková-Šneidrová 1963, annex 1; Völling 1995: 59, map 9; Droberjar 2006a: 27, fig. 9:1–5, 39:1). There were also ancient tureens and deep bowls
with inverted rims known as Suebian bowls (or pots), which began to be used again
at the end of the Roman Period (380 AD). Among the rare finds are some Roman
imports into Suebian Bohemia (a fragment of a copper cauldron, a bow fibula of the
Alesia type, an iron razor with a brass handle; Droberjar 2006a, fig. 10:12, 22:1–2,
26:2).
It is very difficult to determine exactly what type of Suebi tribe came to reside in
Bohemia. Most recently, V. Salač (Salač 2016) concludes that they were the Quadi,
relying on the most ancient references made by Strabo about the Quadi «in whose
territory is Búiaimon (Boiohaemum)» (Geógrafika 7,1,3). According to Strabo, this
territory was in the Hercynian Forest, which was also populated by tribes of the
Suebi.
36
Pat. II, 109,2). In light of this potential threat, the Romans launched a campaign
against Maroboduus in 6 AD (Vell. Pat. II, 109–110) conducted from two directions – from Mogontiaco in the west and from Carnunto in the southeast. The two
Roman military contingents were only a five day’s march from encountering the
enemy when the campaign was aborted as a result of a foedus pacis, which became
known as the Roman-Marcomannian covenant, according to which Maroboduus
was acknowledged as Romanam amicitiam praetulisse, or friend of the Roman nation (Ann. II, 63).
Subsequent conflicts between the Germanic tribes led to a clash between Arminius – chieftain of the Cherusci and conqueror of three Roman legions at the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD) – and Maroboduus in 17 AD (Ann. II, 45,1).
After the battle, from which no decisive winner emerged, Maroboduus’s power
began to dwindle following the defection of some tribes from his federation. This
eventually resulted in Catualda’s invasion of Bohemia in 19 AD and the conquest of
Maroboduus’s power-base (Ann. II, 62). Maroboduus subsequently fled south with
numerous groups of the Marcomanni and Quadi in tow. He and his retinue crossed
the Danube somewhere near Bratislava before reaching Italy, where he lived in exile
until his death in 37 or 38 AD (Ann. II, 63). Meanwhile, further Suebi tribes led by
Vannius settled in the Moravian and Váh regions near present-day southwest Slovakia. There, the Kingdom of Vannius (regnum Vannianum) –the second Suebian
Empire – with a dominant position of the Quadi was founded, effectively replacing
Maroboduus’s empire (Dobiአ1964, 149; Kolník 1971: 511–519; 1977).
The Hermunduri in Bohemia.
In 19 or 20 AD, the Hermunduri king Vibilius overthrew Catualda after his army-invaded Bohemia (Ann. 63). Catualda also found Roman refuge at Forum Iulium in
southern Gaul (present-day Fréjus in Provence). It can be assumed that the new
dominant settlers in Bohemia were the Hermunduri, who probably occupied the
territory for approximately 150 years until the Marcomannic Wars (Motyková-Šneidrová 1967). However, it should be noted that some of the original Suebian population (namely the part of the Marcomanni that did not leave Bohemia, and the
Marsigni) remained from the golden age of Maroboduus. The presence of the Hermunduri in Bohemia, particularly in its central and northwest regions, is indicated
by several sources. Tacitus writes (Germ. 41) that the Hermunduri were «faithful
to Rome». Indeed, they were the only German tribe who traded in inland Bohemia
as well as along the River Danube. From the decline of Marobuduus’s empire to
the Marcomannic Wars, which represents a substantial part of the Early Roman
period, many Roman imports found their way to Bohemia (Sakař 1970). In the same
source, Tacitus writes that the source of the River Elbe (in a broader context, one
can assume the river refers to either today’s Elbe or Vltava) was in the land of the
Hermunduri. According to E. Šimek (Šimek 1934: 74–87, fig. 2), the Hermunduri
were localised to central and northwest Bohemia during the Early Roman period.
The Hermunduri also participated in the Marcomannic Wars on the borders of the
province of Raetia. In the last three years of his life, we know that Marcus Aurelius
fought the Hermunduri, Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians (SHA, Marcus 27,
9–10). Even though factions of the Hermunduri held original seats in central Germany (Seyer 1968, fig. 5–6), their most substantial territorial stronghold was most
likely in Bohemia. After the Marcomannic Wars, they vanish from historical sources (Dobiአ1964: 196, 228–229, note 29), with the last report on their whereabouts
somewhat opaque. According to the Roman historian Jordanes (Get. 114), the Hermunduri resided north of the Vandals as late as at the beginning of the 4th century.
The Marcomannic Wars (166–180 AD).
The Marcomanni and Quadi were principally involved in the majority of the Roman-Germanic (barbaric) battles that took place during the reign of emperor Marcus Aurelius. For this reason, Roman troops particularly focused their operations in
the areas of southern Moravia, Lower Austria and western Slovakia, as evidenced by
the numerous March camps and other types of Roman constructions littered about
the region (Rajtár 2008; Tejral 2008; 2014; Komoróczy 2009). Bohemia was probably not directly affected by these violent events. However, based on the abundant
finds of Roman imports, including Roman militaria (Sakař 1970; Musil 1994), it is
reasonable to assume that various Elbe-Germanic inhabitants of Bohemia, among
whose numbers the Hermunduri may have been a part, were involved in these battles with the Romans. Other Suebi to settle in the near vicinity of Bohemia as well
as in parts of Bohemia itself were the Varisci. Tacitus (Germ. 42) situates them next
to the Hermunduri, and he places the Marcomanni and Quadi further in that direction. The Varisci and Quadi thus formed the geographical forefront of the part
of Germania facing the River Danube. We also know that the Varisci participated
in the Marcomannic Wars and that members of their tribe later resettled in Roman
territory (Dio 71, 21; SHA, Marcus 22, 1–9). Among the potential places where they
were seated are south Bohemia and the territories around the Bavarian tributaries
of the Danube (the Regen and Naaba rivers in Bavaria), which closely neighbour the
Bohemian region.
The Marcomannic Wars began when around 6000 Lombards and Obii attacked
the Roman Empire, crossing the Danube in Upper Pannonia (Pannonia Superior)
(Dio 71, 3, 1a; Dobiአ1964: 196). It is therefore highly likely that the Lombards had
to pass through Bohemia. It remains unanswered what material culture and artefacts they left behind, as we do not know the length of their stay in Bohemia, either
before or after the wars.
Descendants of the Suebi in Bohemia after the
Marcomannic Wars.
The Marcomannic Wars and the ensuing events that took place at the close of the
second and particularly at the beginning of the 3rd century fomented the crisis within the Roman Empire and precipitated fundamental changes among the tribes of
the Germanic Barbaricum. These events also affected the territory of what is now
the Czech Republic and the Elbe-Germanic population that lived there. It is very
likely that the population density and demographics within this area changed upon
the arrival of the mainly Germanic newcomers, the descendants of the Suebi (Jiřík
2010; Droberjar 2013a). Although written reports on the Hermunduri had ceased,
the indigenous population of Bohemia was permeated with new migrants who established new settlements and burial sites at places such as Opočno, DobřichovTřebická, Pňov and Plotiště nad Labem. Some necropolises have survived, or rather
languished, from the Early Roman period (Třebusice). There is no knowledge about
who exactly lived in the Bohemian territory in the three hundred-long years from
the end of the second to the end of the 5th century. But there is no doubt that some of
them were Elbe-Germans. Grave and other finds lead back westwards to the cradle
of the Suebi, comprising the central Elbe Region and parts of northern Germany.
Abundant archaeological finds from these areas – such as finds from the Zethlingen burial site (Worbs 1979) in Altmark in the north of Saxony-Anhalt (identical to
Bohemian finds) or finds across almost the entire stretch of the west Mecklenburg/
east Holstein German cultural sphere (Hegewisch 2007) – strongly suggest that the
37
Elbe-Germans did in fact live in Bohemia at the end of the Early Roman period and
beginning of the Late Roman period (Rybová 1970; 1979; 1980; Droberjar 2013a).
Further strong evidence from central Germany has been discovered dating
to the second half of the third and the beginning of the fourth century, a period
that witnessed significant social change occurring as a result of Germanic raids on
Roman lines in the middle of the third century (Werner 1973; Bemmann 2003).
This phenomenon is perhaps best demonstrated by the rich skeletal graves found
at Haßleben-Leuna-Gommern in the Middle Elbe area (Schulz 1933; 1953; Werner
1973; Becker 2010) containing Suebi descendants, who formed new Germanic elites
and power-centres. Similarly impressive finds of graves (mostly of women) also
occur in Bohemia at Soběsuky, Hostivice and Slepotice (Blažek 1995; 145–148, fig.
9–15; Beková – Droberjar 2005; Droberjar 2007; Sankot-Theune 2012). Although
perhaps not as comprehensive as those of central German sites, they are nonetheless an important record of the changes that were underway within Elbe-Germanic
society. From the grave goods of cremation burials found latterly, a significant decrease in material wealth becomes apparent, a trend that culminates in the second
half of the 4th century. There is also an increase in inhumations, instances of which
occur particularly in northwest and central Bohemia (Blažek 1995; Beková-Droberjar 2005: fig. 29, map 30; Bemmann-Voß 2007: fig. 5).
During the Late Roman period and the beginning of the Migration period, the
Elbe-Germans still occupied Bohemian territory. However, based on finds in the
region, the cultural composition of the people had changed. For instance, in Polabí
and the Elbe region in Bohemia, there are less cremation burial sites and rich graves
containing foreign items become fewer – Žiželice (Blažek 1995: 150–152, fig. 18–19)
and Beroun-Závodí (Břicháček 1981; Tejral 2011: 109, 110, fig. 70). Dating to the 4th
century AD, the distinctive Přešťovice-Friedenhain group in south Bohemia proves
of interest (Svoboda 1963; Jiřík 2014; Zavřel 2016; Masanz 2017) in that it is characterised by modest cremation burials, which themselves date up until the beginning
of the first half of the 5th century. Based on the typical pottery of this period, their
cultural elements bear strong resemblance with those of the Bavarians (Baiovarii).
Although the genesis of these peoples is a complicated topic and one that goes beyond the purposes of this study (Dobiአ1964: 313, note 21), it is certain that the core
of the Bavarian population were Elbe-German Suebi.
The turn of the fourth and fifth centuries also marked the departure of the Middle-Danube Suebi (once the south-Moravian, Lower Austrian and west-Slovakian
Marcomanni and Quadi; Tejral 1985; 2011: 112–125; Kolník 1988) for the Iberian
Peninsula. It can only be speculated whether some of the Elbe-Germans from Bohemia joined them on their journey west. What is sure is that the 4th/5th century
Elbe-Germans founded a new cultural group, named after the central Bohemian
burial site in Vinařice (Svoboda 1965: 78–126, 214–220, 298–299; Tejral 2006; Droberjar 2013b: 184–186. Inhumation burial sites of the Vinařice group dating to the
5th century (410/420–480) are often characterised by rich graves containing luxury west Roman and Mediterranean imports (Droberjar 2012; Jiřík – Vávra 2015).
The most important of these are found at a burial site in Praha-Zličín (Jiřík et al.
2015). Separate rich inhumations of warriors (Bříza) or of women (Měcholupy and
Úherce) also occur, although very few settlements are known. Discussion continues
as to the decline or possible further development of this group in the 6th century.
The archaeological finds of the Vinařice group are closely linked to Alemanni culture, it possibly was a key group connected to the development of the Bavarians;
it also bears some Thuringian elements, and especially the strong influence of the
Middle Danube Region (Danube area/east German sphere).
The idea that the territory of Bohemia was inhabited by a single identical Elbe-Germanic people from the close of the La Tène period through the whole Roman period until the Early Migration period (second half of the 1st century BC to the
38
5th century AD) is nowadays untenable. Also, the oft-purported homogeneity of the
cultural development within the researched territory is far from conclusive. As attested by written and archaeological sources, the developments in Bohemia (which
contained the Elbe-Germanic population) clearly show great variation throughout
the Early Roman period but particularly from the 3rd to the 5th century.
Leading Germanic Groups in Bohemia:
1. Suebi/Quadi? (2nd half of the 1st century BC)
2. Suebi/Marcomanni (turn of the millennium)
3. Suebi/Hermunduri (1st/2nd century)
4. Mix of different Elbe-Germans, including the Suebi (3rd to 5th century), but without a dominant group
5. Thuringii and Lombards (5th to 6th century)
Dating to the 5th, possibly the early 6th century, the first inhumation burials
and burial sites displaying Thuringian traits start to appear in Bohemia (Droberjar
2008). The artefacts discovered mainly belonged to women. Dating to the 6th century, grave and settlement finds attributed to the Lombards also occur (Droberjar
2008; 2013c). These new, Early Medieval peoples with Suebian roots were also likely
to have passed through Bohemia on their way to the Danube Region and latterly,
after 568 AD, to Italy (Werner 1962; Bemmann-Schmauder ed. 2008: 34, fig. 18; Pohl
2008).
The name Suebi first began to emerge in the first century BC in the territory
of Germany and latterly in Bohemia. After being attributed different names over a
complex period, «Suebi» emerges as the name they called themselves by the time
they reached the middle Danube area at the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. They
continued to hold onto that name in their new homeland in northern Portugal and
northwest Spain (Galicia) in the 5th and 6th centuries.
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Fig. 2. A Roman bronze figurine of
the Germanic man adorned with a
Suebian knot (after Krierer 2002)
Fig. 1. Suebe invasions of the Rhine and Gaul in the 1st century BC
Fig. 3. Schkopau, grave 50, 2nd half
of the 1st century BC (after SchmidtNitzschke 1989 and Peschel 2006)
41
Fig. 4. Großromstedt Culture and Suebe expansion to Bohemia (after Peschel 1978, completed)
Fig. 5. Sharply profiled Grossromstedt beaker (so-called Plaňany
beaker) from the 2nd half of the 1st century BC. (after Droberjar 2006a)
42
Fig. 6. Maroboduus’s empire and the Marcomanni in Bohemia
Fig. 7. Dobřichov-Pičhora, grave V. The
bronze bucket with facial attaché used as
an urn (beginning of the 1st century AD)
Fig. 8. Holubice, cremation in the bronze urn with
Roman imports (beginning of the 1st century AD)
Fig. 9. Bohemia during Maroboduus´s Empire, main
types of Suebian artifacts (after Droberjar 2009).
43
Fig. 10. Bohemia after the decline of Maroboduus´s empire
(1st-2nd century AD). The Hermunduri in Bohemia, the
Marsigni in Bohemia and Moravia, the Marcomanni in
Moravia and Austria and the Quadi in Slovakia
Fig. 11. Beroun-Závodí (Bohemia), warrior grave from the end of the 4th century AD
44
Eduard Droberjar