Knowledge

The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الأموية‎‎, trans. Al-Khilāfah al-ʾumawiyya), also spelled Omayyad,[1] was the second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centered on the Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: الأمويون‎‎, al-ʾUmawiyyūn, or بنو أمية, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in AD 661/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 (4,300,000 sq mi)[2] and 62 million people (29% of the world's population),[3] making it one of the largest empires in history in both area and proportion of the world's population. Rashidun Caliphs (8 June 632 – 29 January 661)[edit] Main articles: Rashidun and Rashidun Caliphate Period Caliph Calligraphic Relationship with Muhammad Parents House Notes 8 June 632 – 22 August 634 Abū Bakr (أبو بكر) 'Abdullah Șaḥābī Aṣ-Ṣiddīq Father of Aisha, Muhammad's wife 'Uthman Abu Quhafa, ṣaḥābī Salma Umm-ul-Khair, ṣaḥābīyah Banu Taim Commonly known as Aṣ-Ṣiddīq (Arabic: الصديق, "The Truthful") Reigned until his death 23 August 634 – 3 November 644 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (عمر بن الخطاب) Șaḥābī Al-Farooq Amir al-Mu'minin Father of Hafsa, Muhammad's wife Khattab ibn Nufayl Hantamah bint Hisyam Banu Adi Also known with his epithet Al-Farooq ("the one who distinguishes between right and wrong") Assassinated by Persians in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia 11 November 644 – 20 June 656 'Uthman ibn 'Affan (عثمان بن عفان) Șaḥābī Dhun Nurayn Amir al-Mu'minin Husband of Muhammad's daughters, Ruqayya and later Umm Kulthum 'Affan ibn Abi al-'As Arwa bint Kurayz, ṣaḥābīyah Banu Ummaya Also known as Dhun-Nurayn (Possessor of Two Lights) because he married two Muhammad's daughters Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house 20 June 656 – 29 January 661 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib (علي بن أبي طالب) Șaḥābī Amir al-Mu'minin Muhammad's first cousin Husband of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah Husband of Umamah bint Zainab, Muhammad's granddaughter Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib Fatimah bint Asad, ṣaḥābīyah Banu Hashim Also known as First Imam of Shia Assassinated during Fajr prayer in Kufa Hasan ibn Ali's Caliphate (661)[edit] Period Caliph Calligraphic Relationship with Muhammad or Previous Caliph Parents House Notes 661 (six or seven months) Ḥasan ibn ʿAli (الحسن بن علي) Ahl al-Bayt Amir al-Mu'minin Grandson of Muhammad. Son of 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib, fourth Rashidun Caliph Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad and his first wife Khadijah Banu Hashim Abdicated after six or seven months for Mu'awiyah Umayyad Caliphs (661 – 6 August 750)[edit] Main article: Umayyad Caliphate Period Caliph Relationship with Muhammad or Previous Caliph Parents Notes 661 – 29 April or 1 May 680 Mu'awiyah I (معاوية) Șaḥābī Amir al-Mu'minin Half-brother of Ramla bint Abu Sufyan, Muhammad's wife Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, ṣaḥābī Hind bint 'Utbah, ṣaḥābīyah Worked as scribe during the time of Muhammad and became Governor of Syria during 'Umar's reign until his bay'ah as caliph Muawiyah officially transformed caliphate from elective monarchy by shura into hereditary monarchy 680 – 11 November 683 Yazid I (زيد) Son of Mu'awiyah I Mu'awiyah I, ṣaḥābī and Ummayad Caliph Maysun bint Bajdal Title caliph also claimed by 'Abd Allah ibn az-Zubayr in 680 November 683 – 684 Mu'awiyah II (معاوية الثاني) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Yazid I Yazid I, Ummayad Caliph Last Ummayad Caliph from Sufyanid line Abdicated without childrens 684 – 7 May 685 Marwan I (مروان بن الحکم) Șaḥābī Amir al-Mu'minin First cousin of 'Uthman ibn 'Affan Hakam ibn Abi al-'As, ṣaḥābī Marwan's ascension pointed to a shift in the lineage of the Umayyad dynasty from descendants of Abu Sufyan (the "Sufyanids") to those of Hakam (the "Marwanids"), both of whom were grandsons of Umayya (for whom the Umayyad dynasty is named) 685 – 8 October 705 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (عبد الملك بن مروان) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Marwan I Marwan I, Ummayad Caliph 'Aisha bint Muawiya ibn Al-Mughira October 705 – 23 February 715 Al-Walid I (الوليد الأول) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Ummayad Caliph Walida bint al-'Abbas February 715 – 22 September 717 Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Malik (سلیمان بن عبدالملک) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Abd al-Malik and younger brother of Al-Walid I 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Ummayad Caliph Walida bint al-'Abbas September 717 – February 720 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz (عمر بن عبد العزيز) Amir al-Mu'minin Grandson of Marwan I First cousin of Al-Walid I and Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Malik Great-grandson of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab from female-line 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Marwan Umm Asim Layla bint Asim ibn 'Umar Also known as fifth Rashidun Caliph 10 February 720 – 26 January 724 Yazid II (يزيد الثاني) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Ummayad Caliph Atikah bint Yazid 26 January 724 – 6 February 743 Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik (هشام بن عبد الملك) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Ummayad Caliph Fatimah bint Hisham 6 February 743 – 17 April 744 Al-Walid II (الوليد الثاني) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Yazid II Nephew of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik Yazid II, Ummayad Caliph April 15 to October 3 or 4, 744 Yazid III (يزيد الثالث) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Al-Walid II Al-Walid II, Ummayad Caliph Persian princess 744 (few weeks) Ibrahim ibn al-Walid (ابراهيم ابن الوليد) Amir al-Mu'minin Son of Al-Walid II Al-Walid II, Ummayad Caliph 744 – 6 August 750 Marwan II (مروان بن محمد) Amir al-Mu'minin Grandson of Marwan I Muḥammad ibn Marwān Abbasid Caliphs (750–1258 and 1261–1517)[edit] Main article: Abbasid Caliphate Caliphs of Baghdad (25 January 750 – 20 February 1258)[edit] (Not accepted by the Muslim dominions in the Umayyad-ruled Iberian Peninsula and the Fatimid and Almohad-ruled parts of North Africa).[1][2] Period Regnal Name Personal Name Parents Notes 750 – 10 June 754 As-Sāffaḥ 'Abdallah Abul-'Abbās Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdallah Raita al-Harsia Descendant of 'Abbās, Muhammad's uncle 10 June 754 – 775 Al-Mansur Abu Ja'far 'Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdallah Sallamah 775 – 4 August 785 Al-Mahdi Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad Al-Mansur, Abbasid Caliph August 785 – 14 September 786 Al-Hadi Abu Muhammad Musa Al-Mahdi, Abbasid Caliph Al-Khayzuran bint 'Atta 14 September 786 – 24 March 809 Harun ar-Rashid Al-Mahdi, Abbasid Caliph Al-Khayzuran bint 'Atta March 809 – 24/25 September 813 Al-Amin Muhammad Harun ar-Rashid, Abbasid Caliph Zubaidah bint Ja`far, granddaughter of Al-Mansur, Abbasid Caliph September 813 – 9 August 833 Al-Ma'mun Abu Jaʿfar 'Abdallah Harun ar-Rashid, Abbasid Caliph Marajil 9 August 833 – 5 January 842 Al-Mu'tasim Abū Ishaq Muhammad Harun ar-Rashid, Abbasid Caliph Marida 5 January 842 – 10 August 847 Al-Wathiq Abu Ja'far Harun Al-Mu'tasim, Abbasid Caliph Qaratis 10 August 847 – 11 December 861 Al-Mutawakkil Ja'far Al-Mu'tasim, Abbasid Caliph Shuja 861 – 7 or 8 June 862 Al-Muntasir Abu Ja'far Muhammad Al-Mutawakkil, Abbasid Caliph Reigned during the Anarchy at Samarra 862 – 866 Al-Musta'in Ahmad Muhammad, son of Al-Mu'tasim, Abbasid Caliph Reigned during the Anarchy at Samarra 866 – 869 Al-Mu'tazz Al-Mutawakkil, Abbasid Caliph Reigned during the Anarchy at Samarra 869 – 21 June 870 Al-Muhtadi Al-Wathiq, Abbasid Caliph Greek concubine Reigned during the Anarchy at Samarra 21 June 870 – 15 October 892 Al-Mu'tamid Al-Mutawakkil, Abbasid Caliph October 892 – 5 April 902 Al-Mu'tadid Abu'l-'Abbas Ahmad Al-Muwaffaq, regent of the Abbasid Caliphate Dirar 5 April 902 – 13 August 908 Al-Muktafi Abu Ahmad ʿAlî Al-Mu'tadid, Abbasid Caliph 13 August 908 – 929 Al-Muqtadir Abu al-Fadl Ja'far Al-Mu'tadid, Abbasid Caliph First reign Title caliph also claimed by al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimids in 909 and 'Abd ar-Rahman III of Córdoba in 16 January 929 929 Al-Qahir Abu Mansur Muhammad Al-Mu'tadid, Abbasid Caliph First reign 929 – 31 October 932 Al-Muqtadir Second reign 31 October 932 – 934 Al-Qahir Second reign 934 – 23 December 940 Ar-Radi Abu al-'Abbas Muhammad Al-Muqtadir, Abbasid Caliph 940 – 944 Al-Muttaqi Al-Muqtadir, Abbasid Caliph Khalub or Zahrah September 944 – January 946 Al-Mustakfi 'Abdallah Al-Muktafi, Abbasid Caliph January 946 – 974 Al-Muti Abu al-Qasim al-Faḍl Al-Muqtadir, Abbasid Caliph 974 – 991 At-Ta'i Al-Muti, Abbasid Caliph 1 November 991 – 29 November 1031 Al-Qadir Al-Muttaqi, Abbasid Caliph Tumna 29 November 1031 – 2 April 1075 Al-Qa'im Al-Qadir, Abbasid Caliph 2 April 1075 – February 1094 Al-Muqtadi Muhammad, son of Al-Qa'im, Abbasid Caliph Urjuman, Armenian concubine February 1094 – 6 August 1118 Al-Mustazhir Al-Muqtadi, Abbasid Caliph 6 August 1118 – 29 August 1135 Al-Mustarshid Al-Mustazhir, Abbasid Caliph 29 August 1135 – 1136 Ar-Rashid Al-Mustarshid, Abbasid Caliph 1136 – 12 March 1160 Al-Muqtafi Al-Mustazhir, Abbasid Caliph 12 March 1160 – 20 December 1170 Al-Mustanjid Al-Muqtafi, Abbasid Caliph Thawus 20 December 1170 – 30 March 1180 Al-Mustadi Al-Mustanjid, Abbasid Caliph 2 March 1180 – 4 October 1225 An-Nasir Al-Mustadi, Abbasid Caliph Zumurrud, concubine 5 October 1225 – 11 July 1226 Az-Zahir An-Nasir, Abbasid Caliph 11 July 1226 – 2 December 1242 Al-Mustansir Az-Zahir, Abbasid Caliph 2 December 1242 – 20 February 1258 Al-Musta'sim Al-Mustansir, Abbasid Caliph Last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad 20 February 1258 – 13 June 1261 Interregnum Mongol sack of Baghdad During the latter period of Abbasid rule, Muslim rulers began using other titles, such as Sultan. Caliphs of Cairo (13 June 1261 – 22 January 1517)[edit] The Cairo Abbasids were largely ceremonial Caliphs under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate that existed after the takeover of the Ayyubid dynasty.[3][4] Period Regnal Name Personal Name Parents Notes 13 June 1261 – 28 November 1261 Al-Mustansir II Abu al-Qasim Ahmad Az-Zahir Installed as Caliph in Cairo, Egypt by the Mamluk Sultans in 1261 Title caliph also claimed by Al Hakim I who was installed as caliph by ruler of Aleppo 16 November 1262 – 19 January 1302 Al-Hakim I Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad Installed as caliph by ruler of Aleppo in 1261 Proclaimed as caliph by Mamluk Sultan after Al-Mustansir II died 20 January 1302 – February 1340 Al-Mustakfi I Abu ar-Rabi' Sulaiman Al-Hakim I February 1340 – 17 June 1341 Al-Wathiq I Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Muhammad, son of Al-Hakim I 1341 – 1352 Al-Hakim II Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad Al-Mustakfi I 1352 – 1362 Al-Mu'tadid I Abu Bakr Al-Mustakfi I 1362 – 1377 Al-Mutawakkil I Abu 'Abdillah Muhammad Al-Mu'tadid I First reign 1377 Al-Mus'tasim Abu Yahya Zakariya Al-Wathiq I First reign 1377 – 1383 Al-Mutawakkil I Second reign September 1383 – 13 November 1386 Al-Wathiq II 'Umar Al-Wathiq I 1386 – 1389 Al-Mus'tasim Second reign 1389 – 9 January 1406 Al-Mutawakkil I Third reign 22 January 1406 – 9 March 1414 Al-Musta'in Abu al-Fadl al-'Abbas Al-Mutawakkil I Bay Khatun Became Sultan of Egypt from 7 May 1412 until 6 November 1412 1414 – 1441 Al-Mu'tadid II Abu al-Fath Dawud Al-Mutawakkil I Kazal 1441 – 29 January 1451 Al-Mustakfi II Abu ar-Rabi' Sulayman Al-Mutawakkil I 1451 – 1455 Al-Qa'im Abu Al-Baqa Hamzah Al-Mutawakkil I 1455 – 7 April 1479 Al-Mustanjid Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf Al-Mutawakkil I 5 April 1479 – 27 September 1497 Al-Mutawakkil II Abu al-'Izz 'Abdul 'Aziz Al-Musta'in Haj al-Malik 1497 – 1508 Al-Mustamsik Abu as-Sabr Al-Mutawakkil II First reign 1508 – 1516 Al-Mutawakkil III Muhammad First reign 1516 – 1517 Al-Mustamsik Second reign 1517 Al-Mutawakkil III Second reign He formally surrendered the title of caliph as well as its outward emblems—the sword and mantle of Muhammad—to Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1517, made him the last caliph from Abbasid dynasty and Banu Quraysh Ottoman Caliphs (1517 – 3 March 1924)[edit] Main article: Ottoman Caliphate The head of the Ottoman dynasty was just entitled Sultan originally, but soon it started accumulating titles assumed from subjected peoples.[5][6] Murad I (reigned 1362–1389) was the first Ottoman claimant to the title of Caliph; claimed the title after conquering Edirne.[7] Period Caliph Portrait Tughra Parents Notes 1517 – 21 September 1520 Selim I Bayezid II Gülbahar Hatun Reigned until his death.[8] 30 September 1520 – 6 or 7 September 1566 Suleiman I Selim I Ayşe Hafsa Sultan, Crimean Khanate princess, first valide sultan Reigned until his death.[9] 29 September 1566 – 21 December 1574 Selim II Suleiman I Hürrem Sultan, daughter of Orthodox priest, first haseki sultan Reigned until his death.[10] 22 December 1574 – 16 January 1595 Murad III Selim II Nurbanu Sultan, Venetian or Spanish, haseki sultan and valide sultan Reigned until his death.[11] 27 January 1595 – 20 or 21 December 1603 Mehmed III Murad III Safiye Sultan, Albanian, valide sultan Reigned until his death;[12] 21 December 1603 – 22 November 1617 Ahmed I Mehmed III Handan Sultan, valide sultan Reigned until his death.[13] 22 November 1617 – 26 February 1618 Mustafa I Mehmed III Abkhazian concubine. Popularly known with name Halime Sultan, valide sultan First reign; Deposed due to his non-syndromic mental retardation in favour of his young nephew Osman II.[14] 26 February 1618 – 19 May 1622 Osman II Ahmed I Mahfiruz Hatice Sultân Deposed in a Janissary riot on 19 May 1622; Murdered on 20 May 1622 by the Grand Vizier Kara Davud Paşa (Black Da'ud Pasha) from compression of his testicles.[15] 20 May 1622 – 10 September 1623 Mustafa I Second reign; Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II; Deposed due to his syndromic mental retardation and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.[14] 10 September 1623 – 8 or 9 February 1640 Murad IV Ahmed I Mahpeyker Kösem Sultân, priest's daughter, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Reigned until his death.[16] 9 February 1640 – 8 August 1648 Ibrahim Ahmed I Mahpeyker Kösem Sultân, priest's daughter, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Deposed on 8 August 1648 in a coup led by the Sheikh ul-Islam; Strangled in Istanbul on 18 August 1648[17] at the behest of the Grand Vizier Mevlevî Mehmed Paşa (Sofu Mehmed Pasha). 8 August 1648 – 8 November 1687 Mehmed IV Ibrahim Turhan Hatice Sultan, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Deposed on 8 November 1687 following the Ottoman defeat at the Second Battle of Mohács; Died in Edirne on 6 January 1693.[18] 8 November 1687 – 22 June 1691 Suleiman II Ibrahim Sâliha Dil-AşUb Sultan, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Reigned until his death.[19] 22 June 1691 – 6 February 1695 Ahmed II Ibrahim Hatice Mû’azzez , ikinci haseki sultan and later valide sultan Reigned until his death.[20] 6 February 1695 – 22 August 1703 Mustafa II Mehmed IV Gulnus Sultan, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Deposed on 22 August 1703 by reason of the Janissary uprising known as the Edirne Event; Died in Istanbul on 8 January 1704.[21] 22 August 1703 – 1 or 2 October 1730 Ahmed III Mehmed IV Gulnus Sultan, haseki sultan and later valide sultan Deposed in consequence of the Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil; Died on 1 July 1736.[22] 2 October 1730 – 13 December 1754 Mahmud I Mustafa II Sâliha Sabkati Sultan, valide sultan Reigned until his death.[23] 13 December 1754 – 29 or 30 October 1757 Osman III Mustafa II Şehsuvar Sultan Reigned until his death.[24] 30 October 1757 – 21 January 1774 Mustafa III Ahmed III Âminā Mehr-î-Shâh (Emine Mihr-î-Şâh) İkinci Kadın Efendi; Reigned until his death.[25] 21 January 1774 – 6 or 7 April 1789 Abdülhamid I Son of Ahmed III Râbi’a Sharm-î (Şerm-î) Kadın Efendi; Reigned until his death.[26] 7 April 1789 – 29 May 1807 Selim III Mustafa III Mehr-î-Shâh (Mihr-î-Şâh) Vâlidā Sultân; Deposed as a result of the Janissary revolt led by Kabakçı Mustafa against his reforms; Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808[27] at the behest of Ottoman Sultan Mustafa IV. 29 May 1807 – 28 July 1808 Mustafa IV Abdülhamid I Bash Iqbal Nushatzaza (Nüzhet-Zâdāh / Nükhet-Sedâ) Khānūm Effendi; Deposed in an insurrection led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha; Executed in Istanbul on 17 November 1808[28] by order of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II. 28 July 1808 – 1 July 1839 Mahmud II Abdülhamid I Disbanded the Janissaries in consequence of the Auspicious Event in 1826; Reigned until his death.[29] 1 July 1839 – 25 June 1861 Abdülmecid I Mahmud II Bezm-î-Âlem Vâlidā Sultân; Proclaimed the Hatt-ı Sharif (Imperial Edict) of Gülhane (Tanzimât Fermânı) that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization on 3 November 1839 at the behest of reformist Grand Vizier Great Mustafa Rashid Pasha; Accepted the Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümayun (Imperial Reform Edict) (Islâhat Fermânı) on 18 February 1856; Reigned until his death.[30] 25 June 1861 – 30 May 1876 Abdülaziz I Mahmud II Pertav-Nihâl (Pertevniyâl) Vâlidā Sultân; Deposed by his ministers; Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.[31] 30 May 1876 – 31 August 1876 Murad V Abdülmecid I Shāvk-Efzâ (Şevk-Efzâ) Vâlidā Sultân; Deposed due to his efforts to implement democratic reforms in the empire; Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904.[32] 31 August 1876 – 27 April 1909 Abdülhamid II Abdülmecid I Tîr-î-Müjgan Üçüncü Kadın Efendi Reluctantly allowed the First Constitutional Era on 23 November 1876 and then suspended it and reverted to personal rule on 13 February 1878; Forced to restore the Second Constitutional Era on 3 July 1908; Deposed after the 31 March Incident (on 13 April 1909); Confined to Beylerbeyi Palace where he died on 10 February 1918.[33] 27 April 1909 – 3 July 1918 Mehmed V Abdülmecid I Gül-Cemâl Dördüncü Kadın Efendi; Reigned as a figurehead of Mehmed Talât, İsmail Enver, and Ahmed Cemal (Djemal) Pashas until his death.[34] 4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922 Mehmed VI Abdülmecid I Gül-İstü (Gülistan Münire) Dördüncü Kadın Efendi; Sultanate abolished; Left Istanbul on 17 November 1922; Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy on 16 May 1926.[35] 18 November 1922 – 3 March 1924 Abdülmecid II — [c] Abdülaziz I Hayrân-î-Dil Kadın Efendi;[36] Elected caliph by the TBMM; Exiled after the abolition of the caliphate;[37] Died in Paris, France on 23 August 1944.[38] The Office of the Caliphate was transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey which dissolved the office on March 3, 1924, in keeping with the policies of secularism that were adopted in the early years of the Republic of Turkey by its President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The current pretender to the Imperial House of Osman is Bayezid Osman, since September 23, 2009.  Abū Muhammad al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn al-Ḥakam ibn ʿAqīl al-Thaqafī (Arabic: أبو محمد الحجاج بن يوسف بن الحكم بن عقيل الثقفي‎‎; Ta'if 661 – Wasit, 714), known simply as al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (Arabic: الحجاج بن يوسف‎‎ / ALA: al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf (or otherwise transliterated),[1] was perhaps the most notable governor who served the Umayyad Caliphate. An extremely capable though ruthless statesman, a strict in character, but also a harsh and demanding master, he was widely feared by his contemporaries and became a deeply controversial figure and an object of deep-seated enmity among later, pro-Abbasid writers, who ascribed to him persecutions and mass executions. ‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī (Arabic: عماد الدين محمد بن القاسم الثقفي‎‎; c. 31 December 695 – 18 July 715[citation needed]) was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River (now a part of Pakistan) for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Ta'if (in modern-day Saudi Arabia). Qasim's conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif tribe of the Ta'if region, Muhammad bin Qasim's father was Qasim bin Yusuf[citation needed] who died when Muhammad bin Qasim was young, leaving his mother in charge of his education and care. Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thaqafi, Muhammad bin Qasim's paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Al-Hajjaj's daughter, shortly before going to Sindh. Due to his close relationship with Al-Hajjaj, Bin Qasim was executed after the accession of Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik.  The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).[7][8] Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the first four of which were of Turkic origin: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90); the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320); the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414);[9] the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51); and the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). After that, Mughal Empire Stated from 1526 (PANIPAT BATTLE) and ended in 1857. The First Battle of Panipat (1526), between Babur and the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, resulting in a Victory of Mughals The Second Battle of Panipat (1556), between the Mughal Ruler Akbar and Hemu, the Hindu ruler of North India from Delhi, resulting in a Mughal victory. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761), between the Durrani Empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan and the Maratha Empire of Balaji Baji Rao, resulting with decisive Afghan victory  Nawabs of Awadh (1722–1856) Islamic History… umayyad dynasty, also spelled Omayyad, the first great Muslim dynasty to rule the empire of the Caliphate (661–750 ce), Abbasid Caliphate الخلافة العباسية ←  750–1258 1261–1517 (under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo) Aaima Arba period Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān, also known as Imam Abū Ḥanīfah, was the founder of the Sunni Hanafi School of fiqh. He is also considered a renowned Islamic scholar and personality by Zaydi Shia Muslims. He is often called "The Great Imam". Wikipedia Born: September 5, 699 AD, Kufa, Iraq Died: June 14, 767 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Buried: Abu Hanifa Mosque, Baghdad, Iraq Parents: Thabit bin Zuta Era: Islamic Golden Age Mālik ibn Anas ibn Mālik ibn Abī 'Āmir al-Asbahī (Arabic: مالك بن أنس‎; 711–795 CE / 93–179 AH) is known as "Imam Malik," the "Sheikh of Islam", the "Proof of the Community," and "Imam of the Abode of Emigration." [1] He was one of the most highly respected scholars of fiqh in Sunni Islam. Shafi`i, who was one of Malik's students for nine years and a scholarly giant in his own right, stated, "when scholars are mentioned, Malik is the star."[2] The Maliki Madhab/rite, named after Malik, is one of the four schools of jurisprudence that are followed by Sunni Muslims to this day. Imam Malik was a student of Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.fluenced by: Ali, Ja'far al-Sadiq, Abdullah, Son of Masud Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī was a Muslim jurist, who lived from. Often referred to as 'Shaykh al-Islām', al-Shāfi‘ī was one of the four great Imams, whose legacy on juridical ... Wikipedia Born: 767 AD, Gaza City Died: January 20, 820 AD, Fustat, Egypt Buried: Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i Era: Islamic Golden Age Books: Al-Risala, Kitab Al-Umm, Jil. 1-2 Aḥmad bin Muḥammad bin Ḥanbal Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Shaybānī was an important Muslim scholar and theologian. He is considered the founder of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence. Wikipedia Born: 780 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Died: 855 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Books: The Foundations of the Sunnah, Al-Musnad, more Junayd of Baghdad Junayd of Baghdad was a Persian mystic and one of the most famous of the early Sufis, of Islam. He is a central figure in the spiritual lineage of many Sufi orders.  Born: 830 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Died: 910 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Mansur Al-Hallaj Mansur al-Hallaj was a Persian mystic, writer and teacher of Sufism. He is most famous for his saying: "I am the Truth", which many saw as a claim to divinity, while others interpreted it as an instance Born: March 26, 858 AD, Fars Province, Iran Died: March 26, 922 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Parents: Mansur Hallaj Era: Abbasid Caliphate Books: Kitab al-Tawasin, Ta Sin: A Mystical Treatise, The Tawasin of Mansur Al-Hallaj, Diwan Al-Ghazali Theologian Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī, shortened as Al-Ghazali and known as Algazelus or Algazel to the Western medieval world, was a Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic of Persian descent. Wikipedia Born: 1058, Tous, Iran Died: December 19, 1111, Tous, Iran Parents: Muhammad al-Ghazali Era: Islamic Golden Age Influenced by: Avicenna, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, Al-Kindi, Al-Juwayni,Harith al-Muhasibi Books Revival of Religious Sciences The alchemy of happiness On disciplining the soul Munqidh min alḍalāl Rabia Basri Rābiʻa al-ʻAdawiyya al-Qaysiyya was a female Muslim saint and Sufi mystic. She is known in some parts of the world as Hazrat Bibi Rabia Basri, or simply Rabia Basri. Wikipedia Born: 713 AD, Basra, Iraq Died: 801 AD, Mount of Olives, Jerusalem Abdul-Qadir Gilani Abd al-Qadir Gilani, born 29 Shaban 470 AH in the town of Na'if, district of Gilan-e Gharb, Gilan, Iran and died Monday, February 14, 1166, in Baghdad, was a Persian Hanbali Sunni jurist and sufi based in Baghdad.Wikipedia Born: March 18, 1077, Amol, Iran Died: January 15, 1166, Baghdad, Iraq Buried: Abdul Qadir Gilani Mausoleum, Baghdad Parents: Umm Khair Fatima, Abu Salih Musa al-Hasani Books Revelations of the unseen alFath alRabbani The Secret of Secrets The Book of the Secret of... Jila' alKhati Ibn Arabi Poet Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibnʿArabī al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī ‎ was an Arab Andalusian Scholar of Islam, Sufi mystic, poet, and philosopher. He is renowned by practitioners of Sufism as "the greatest master" and also as a genuine saint. Wikipedia Born: August 7, 1165, Murcia, Spain Died: November 16, 1240, Damascus, Syria Influenced: Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi Buried: Tomb of Ibn al-'Arabi, Damascus Al-Kindi Philosopher Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī, known as "the Philosopher of the Arabs", was a Muslim Arab philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and musician. Wikipedia Born: 801 AD, Basra, Iraq Died: 873 AD, Baghdad, Iraq Influenced: Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi, more Parents: Isaac Ben-Sabah Education: House of Wisdom Books: De Gradibus, more Al-Farabi Philosopher Al-Farabi, known in the West as Alpharabius, was a renowned philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and logic. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician and music scholar. Wikipedia Born: 872 AD, Farab Died: 950 AD, Damascus, Syria Era: Islamic Golden Age Books: Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir, more Influenced by: Aristotle, Plato, Al-Kindi, Plotinus, Ptolemy, Porphyry Al-Biruni Scholar Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī, known as Al-Biruni in English, was a Khwarezmian Iranian Muslim scholar and polymath.Wikipedia Born: September 5, 973 AD, Khwarezm Died: December 13, 1048, Ghazni, Afghanistan Nationality: Iranian Parents: Ahmad Al-Biruni Influenced by: Avicenna, Muhammad, more Avicenna Avicenna was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age. Of the 450 works he is known to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine. Wikipedia Born: 980 Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan Died: June 1037, Hamadan, Iran Influenced by: Al-Farabi, Aristotle, more Ibn al-Haytham Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham, also known by the Latinization Alhazen or Alhacen, was an Arab Muslim scientist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. Wikipedia Born: July 1, 965 AD, Basra, Iraq Died: March 6, 1040, Cairo, Egypt Influenced by: Aristotle, Al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Euclid, Thābit ibn Qurra,Banū Mūsā, Ibn Sahl, Galen, Abū Sahl al-Qūhī Residence: Basra, Iraq, Cairo, Egypt Fields: Optics, Astronomy, Mathematics Ibn Khaldun Ibn Khaldūn was a North African Arab Muslim historiographer and historian. He is claimed as a forerunner of the modern disciplines of sociology and demography. He is best known for his book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena. Wikipedia Born: May 27, 1332, Tunis, Tunisia Died: March 19, 1406, Cairo, Egypt Education: University of Ez-Zitouna Parents: Muḥammad bin Khaldūn Books: Muqaddimah, Arab Philosophy of History, Lubābu l-Muhassal,Yaman: Its Early Mediaeval History Influenced by: Muhammad, Avicenna, Averroes, Al-Ghazali, Al-Zahrawi Physicians and Surgeons Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn al-‘Abbās az-Zahrāwī, popularly known as Al-Zahrawi, Latinised as Abulcasis, was an Arab Muslim physician and surgeon who lived in Al-Andalus. Wikipedia Born: 936 AD, Medina Azahara, Spain Died: 1013, Córdoba, Spain Era: Islamic Golden Age Region: Caliphate of Córdoba Books: Al-Tasrif, On Surgery and Instruments Fakhr al-Din al-Razi Fakhr al-Din al-Razi or Fakhruddin Razi was a Sunni Muslim theologian and philosopher He was born in 1149 in Rey, and died in 1209 in Herat. He also wrote on medicine, physics, astronomy, literature, history and law. Wikipedia Born: 1149, Ray, Iran Died: 1209, Herat, Afghanistan Parents: Diya’ al-Din Era: Islamic Golden Age Books: Tafsir al-Kabir, Imām Rāzī's ʿIlm Al-akhlāq: English Translation of His Kitāb Al-nafs Wa'l-rūḥ Wa Sharḥ Quwāhumā Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Khawaja Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Hasan Tūsī, better known as Nasīr al-Dīn Tūsī, was a Persian polymath and prolific writer: An architect, astronomer, biologist, chemist, mathematician, philosopher, Born: February 18, 1201, Tous, Iran Died: June 26, 1274, Kadhimiya, Iraq Parents: Mohammad ibn Hassan Era: Islamic Golden Age Influenced by: Avicenna, Aristotle, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Miskawayh,Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi Al-Hilli Author Jamāl ad-Dīn Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn 'Ali ibn-i Mûtahhar al-Hilli, also known as al-Allamah al-Hilli, born December 15, 1250 CE, died December 18, 1325, was a Twelver Shia theologian and mujtahid. Wikipedia Born: December 15, 1250, Hillah, Iraq Died: December 18, 1325, Hillah, Iraq Books: Tadhkirat al-Fuqahā, Nahj Al Haq Va Kashf Al Sedq Muhammad Baqir Majlisi Muhammad Baqir Majlesi, known as Allamah Majlesi or Majlesi-ye Thani, was a renowned and very powerful Iranian Twelver Shi'a cleric, during the Safavid era. Wikipedia Born: 1616, Isfahan, Iran Died: 1698, Isfahan, Iran Books: Hilyat al-Muttaqin, Reality of Certainty, more  Villain What it means now: “A person guilty or capable of a crime or wickedness.” What it used to mean: A farm worker Everybody, especially Batman, is familiar with villains—thanks to over half a century of movies, we all know that the villain is the bad guy. Back in the 14th century though, villains were the backbone of agriculture. That is to say, they were the guys who worked on farms. The word villain is actually an old French word that pulls its roots from the word “villa,” Latin for country house. Over time, the meaning of the word gradually changed: Farm workers were poor, practically peasants. Peasants, being poor, are untrustworthy. Untrustworthy people commit crimes. And eventually we ended up with the modern day definition of villain, which is a rich person who gets killed by James Bond. Sabotage What it means now: “Deliberately destroy, damage, or obstruct.” What it used to mean: To walk noisily wearing wooden shoes. In 13th century France, wooden shoes were unfashionable. These wooden shoes were called sabots, were worn by lower class citizens because they were cheaper than leather shoes. Now, if you’ve ever tried to walk more than a few steps in a wooden shoe, you know it’s difficult, clumsy, and noisy. The French noticed that fact as well, and came up with a word to describe it: saboter, to walk noisily wearing sabots. Eventually saboter changed to sabotage and the meaning we know today, but the jump from “noisy walking” to “deliberate destruction” comes with a fun story: when French workers went on strike, they would angrily hurl their wooden shoes into the factory machinery, damaging them beyond repair. Thus wooden shoes became a symbol of destruction. Unfortunately, that story hasn’t been verified, and most etymologists think that the modern meaning came about through a comparatively boring story: Wooden shoes make you clumsy, and so saboter became known as any sort of bungle, like getting the words wrong in a speech and completely bungling the whole thing. By 1910, saboter had further progressed to malicious bungling, and the word was changed to sabotage. Malaria comes from the Latin phrase "mal aria" meaning "bad air" and was used to describe the atmosphere around the swamps of Rome. Addict comes from ancient Rome when soldiers were awarded slaves known as "addicts", which is the Latin word for slave. It eventually came to refer to a person who was a slave to anyone or anything. Tragedy comes from the Greek word "tragodia" which means "song of the male goat". Curfew comes from a combination of two French words – "couvrir" and "feu". Literally this means to "cover fire". Pamphlet comes from the title of a Latin love poem called Pamphilus that was supposedly passed from person to person The word Soccer actually originated in the United Kingdom. Association football was shortened to "socca" (derived from the middle of the word association). This turned into the word "soccer" that is still used in the US, Canada, and Australia. Loophole (or murder hole) originally referred to the slits in castle walls that archers would shoot their arrows through. Muscle comes from a Latin root meaning "little mouse". Apparently people used to think muscles looked like little mice under their skin. War comes from a Germanic root that meant "to confuse" Disaster comes from the Greek "dis" meaning bad, and "aster", meaning star. The ancient Greeks used to blame calamities on unfavorable planetary positions. English Words from Greek Gods The names of the gods live on through their stories and language. Many English words have Greek roots and a lot of them come straight from the names of certain gods and Titans.  Here are some roots of English words in Greek mythology. They are presented in this order with the Greek word or name (followed by a description) > the English word (followed by a definition). Ares (god of war) > battle (to fight) Atlas (a Titan who was condemned to carry the heavens upon his shoulders) >  atlas (book of maps) Clotho (the youngest of the Three Fates who spun the thread of life) > cloth (material made by weaving) Chronos (keeper of time) > chronology (events in order of time) Erôs (god of love and sexual desire) > erotic (sexual in nature) Hypnos (god of sleep) > hypnosis (a sleep-like state of consciousness) Hêlios (god of the sun and guardian of oaths) > heliotrope (plant that turns towards the sun) Khaos (the nothingness from which all sprang) > chaos (confusion, disorder) Muses (goddesses of the inspiration of literature, science and the arts) > musical (of or like music) Narcissus (a very vain god who fell in love with his own reflection) > narcissism (extreme love of self) Nectar (drink of the gods) > nectar, nectarine (fruit juice or sweet plant secretion) Nymph (beautiful maidens, lesser deities who cared for plants and animals) > nymph (beautiful woman) Ôkeanos (God of the river Oceanus, the source of all the Earth's fresh-water) > ocean (large body of water) Typhon (father of all monsters) > typhoon (huge rotating tropical storm) Zephyrus (god of the west wind) > zephyr (gentle west wind) Tantalizing Next time you’re tantalized by something you can’t have, just think of poor Tantalus and how miserable he must have been. Of course, he kind of brought his punishment upon himself. Tantalus was a half-god and half-nymph who was invited to dine at Zeus’ table in Olympus. He then stole ambrosia and nectar along with other secrets of the gods and brought them to the mortals. Later on, he offered his own son as a sacrifice to the gods and served him at a banquet. The gods learned of his plan and rebuilt the boy and brought him back to life, disgusted by Tantalus’ plan. As punishment for his misdeeds, Tantalus was forced to stand in a pool of water below a fruit tree with low-hanging branches. Whenever he would reach down to take a drink, the waters would recede and whenever he reached up to pluck some fruit, the branches would rise up out of his reach. Thus Tantalus spent the rest of eternity being tantalized by water and food that he could never have. Echo This is one of the more famous Greek stories-turned-words. In the ancient tales, Echo was a mountain nymph who talks excessively with her gorgeous voice. Her voice was so lovely that she would often distract Zeus’ wife Hera with her long and entertaining stories while Zeus would sneak away and make love with the other mountain nymphs. When Hera found out about Echo’s role in her husband’s activities, she punished her by taking away her ability to speak, except in repetition of the words of others. There are many differing ends to the story, but in all of them, Echo eventually dies in some heartbreaking manner, leaving her voice to haunt the earth, where it can still be heard to this day. Perhaps one of the most commonly uttered words by parents in the mornings of Western Hemisphere, the term ‘Cereal’ comes from Ceres, the Roman counterpart to Greek goddess Demeter. However, Ceres was not only the Roman goddess of agriculture, but was also associated with grain crops, fertility and the general sense of ‘motherliness’. And what’s more, there was an ancient Roman festival of ‘Cerealia‘ that was held for 7 days in April in honor of Ceres. And on the occasion (according to Ovid’s Fasti), people used to tie blazing torches to the tails of foxes, who were then ceremoniously let loose into the expansive space later known as Circus Maximus – as a symbolic punishment for the creatures’ yearly forays into Roman crop lands that were sacred to Ceres. (*also check this citation). The festival was also marked by what can be termed as collective cos-play with Roman women dressing themselves in white attires to mimic Ceres, who supposedly wandered through earth in lamentation for her abducted daughter Proserpine. Friday from ‘Frigg’ (Norse goddess of fertility) – Today is Friday from where we are writing the article, and in honor of the ‘gateway to the weekend’, we have dug up Friday’s mythic counterpart – Frigg. Primarily known as the spouse of the great Odin (who was the chief among Aesir Norse gods) and the Queen of Asgard, goddess Frigg was also known as Frigga and Frija in Germanic paganism. Epitomizing the noble aspects of a devoted wife and motherhood, Frigg additionally possessed the power of prophecy. Yet more renowned is her courageous state of mind, as she decided not to reveal the fates and fortunes from her intrinsic pool of prophetical knowledge. And, since we are ‘harping’ about Norse Mythology and weekdays, Thursday comes from the hammer-wielding Thor. In English, Fury pertains to intense rage or extreme violence. Its legendary counterpart is actually known as ‘Erinyes‘ in Greek Mythology, which in turn was adopted as ‘furia’ in Latin. The namesake ‘furies‘ were depicted as spirits of vengeance who came from the underworld (Erebus) to wreak havoc on men who had broken their sworn oaths Christian theological traditions define grace as the unrequited love and mercy bestowed upon us by God. However, beyond religious significance, the term is directly translated from Greek χάρις (charis), which pertains to ‘that which brings joy’ – according to the The Harper Collins Bible Dictionary. This ‘charis‘ is in turn related to the Charites, a trio of Greek goddesses (Aglaea or Splendor, Euphrosyne or Mirth and Thalia or Good Cheer) who epitomized beauty, charm and even creativity. In English, panic simply means sudden fear. The word is adopted from ‘Pan‘, who was the son of Greek messenger god Hermes. Pan resided along the wild mountainsides, and was chronicled as the guardian of pastures, sheep and goats – so much so that he himself was depicted with goat-horns and goat-legs. In terms of characterization, Pan was cheerful, flirtatious as well as irritable, and his hobby was to play on his favorite pipe, the syrinx. But more importantly, he could also turn frightening (especially when he was disturbed in his naps) – which perhaps explains his association with the word ‘panic’.  Greek God (English name) Roman Counterpart Domain Aphrodite Venus Goddess of Love Apollo Phoebus Apollo God of the Sun Ares Mars God of war Artemis Diana Virgin goddess of the hunt, wilderness, wild animals, childbirth and plague. In later times she became associated with the moon. Athena Minerva Goddess of wisdom Demeter Ceres Goddess of grain/crops Dionysus Bacchus God of wine Eros Cupid God of love Hades Pluto God of underworld Hecate Trivia Goddess of witchcraft, crossroads, and justice Helios Sol The sun God Hephaestus Vulcan God of fire, and the forge Hera Juno Queen of the Gods Hermes Mercury Messenger of the Gods Nike Victoria Goddess of victory Pan Faunus God of woods and pastures Poseidon Neptune God of the sea Zeus Jupiter King of Gods  umber Name (Full/Title) Title Date of  Birth Death CE/AH Place of birth Place of death and burial 1 Ali ibn Abu Talib علي بن أبي طالب Abu al-Hasan أبو الحسن Ameer al-Mumineen (Commander of the Faithful) 600–661 Makkah,  Saudi Arabia Assassinated by Abdul Rahman ibn Muljim, a Khariji in Kufa, who struck him with a poisonous sword while he was praying. Buried at the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq. 2 Hasan ibn Ali حسن بن علي Abu Muhammad أبو محمد al-Mujtaba (The Chosen) 624–670 3–50 Medina, Saudi Arabia Poisoned by his wife in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the orders of the caliph Muawiya, according to Twelver Shi'ite belief. Buried in Jannat ul Baqi, Medina, Saudi Arabia. 3 Husain ibn Ali حسین بن علي Abu Abdillah أبو عبدالله Sayyid ash-Shuhada (Master of the Marytrs) 626–680 4–61 Medina, Saudi Arabia Killed and beheaded at the Battle of Karbala. Buried at the Imam Husain Shrine in Karbala, Iraq. 4 Ali ibn Husain علي بن الحسین Abu Muhammad أبو محمد al-Sajjad, Zayn al-Abideen (One who constantly Prostrates, Ornament of the Worshippers) 658/9–712 38–95 Medina, Saudi Arabia He was poisoned on the order of Ummayad caliph al-Walid I in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Buried in Jannat ul Baqi, Medina, Saudi Arabia. 5 Muhammad ibn Ali محمد بن علي Abu Ja'far أبو جعفر Baqir al-Ulum (The Revealer of Knowledge) 677–732 57–114 Medina, Saudi Arabia He was poisoned by Ibrahim ibn Walid ibn 'Abdallah in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the order of caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. Buried in Jannat ul Baqi, Medina, Saudi Arabia. 6 Ja'far ibn Muhammad جعفر بن محمد Abu Abdillah أبو عبدالله as-Sadiq (The Honest) 702–765 83–148 Medina, Saudi Arabia He was poisoned in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the order of caliph Al-Mansur. Buried in Jannat ul Baqi, Medina, Saudi Arabia. 7 Musa ibn Ja'far موسی بن جعفر Abu al-Hasan I أبو الحسن الاول al-Kadhim (The Calm One) 744–799 128–183 Medina, Saudi Arabia Imprisoned and poisoned in Baghdad, Iraq on the order of caliph Haroon al-Rashid, according to Shi'ite belief. Buried in the Kadhimayn shrine in Baghdad, Iraq. 8 Ali ibn Musa علي بن موسی Abu al-Hasan II أبو الحسن الثانی ar-Rida, Reza (The Pleasing One) 765–817 148–203 Medina, Saudi Arabia He was poisoned in Mashad, Iran on the order of caliph Al-Ma'mun. Buried in the Imam Reza shrine in Mashad, Iran. 9 Muhammad ibn Ali محمد بن علي Abu Ja'far أبو جعفر al-Taqi, al-Jawad (The God-Fearing, The Generous) 810–835 195–220 Medina, Saudi Arabia Poisoned by his wife, Al-Ma'mun's daughter, in Baghdad, Iraq on the order of caliph Al-Mu'tasim, according to Shi'ite sources. Buried in the Kadhimayn shrine in Baghdad, Iraq. 10 Ali ibn Muhammad علي بن محمد Abu al-Hasan III أبو الحسن الثالث al-Hadi, al-Naqi (The Guide, The Pure One) 827–868 212–254 Surayya, a village near Medina, Saudi Arabia He was poisoned in Samarra, Iraq on the order of caliph Al-Mu'tazz. Buried in the Al Askari Mosque in Samarra, Iraq. 11 Hasan ibn Ali حسن بن علي Abu Muhammad أبو محمد al-Askari (The Citizen of a Garrison Town) 846–874 232–260 Medina,  Saudi Arabia According to Shi'a, he was poisoned on the order of caliph Al-Mu'tamid in Samarra, Iraq. Buried in Al Askari Mosque in Samarra, Iraq. 12 Muhammad ibn Hasan محمد بن الحسن Abu al-Qasim أبو القاسم al-Mahdi, al-Hujjah (The Guided One, The Proof) 868–unknown 255–unknown Samarra,  Iraq He has been living in the Occultation since 872, and will continue as long as God wills it.    har ek baat pe kehte ho tum ke 'too kya hai' ? tumheeN kaho ke yeh andaaz-e-guftgoo kya hai ? ragoN meiN dauDte firne ke ham naheeN qaayal jab aaNkh hee se na Tapka to fir lahoo kya hai ? chipak raha hai badan par lahoo se pairaahan hamaaree jeb ko ab haajat-e-rafoo kya hai ? jalaa hai jicm jahaaN dil bhee jal gaya hoga kuredate ho jo ab raakh, justjoo kya hai ? rahee na taaqat-e-guftaar, aur agar ho bhee to kis ummeed pe kahiye ke aarzoo kya hai ?