Galata Pera Sykai

Edhem Eldem

Galata Pera Sykai

Edhem Eldem

2009, Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Facts on File)

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G Galata (Pera; Sykai) Galata is a district located north of the city of Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), across the inlet of the Bosporus, called the Golden Horn. Known as Sykai (Greek “the figs”) in the first century b.c.e., probably due to its rural character, the area was incorporated into the city of Constantinople in the fifth century c.e. and was renamed Justinianopolis under Emperor Justinian (r. 528–58). The name Galata is evident from the end of the sixth century with the construction, around 580, of the Castle of Galata. In the early eighth century a chain was drawn from the castle across the Golden Horn, protecting the harbor from potential attacks. There is no consensus as to the derivation of the name. Some link it to the Greek word galaktos (milk), due to the presence of dairy farms in the area; some argue that it derives from the Italian calata (stairs, steps), a possible reference to the steep hill on which Galata is set; yet another view claims that the name comes from the presence of the Galatians (Gauls), who stormed the city in 279 b.c.e. This district across the Golden Horn was also often referred to as Pera, from the Greek peran (across). The development of Galata really started with its settlement by the Genoese, following the Venetian-led Fourth Crusade of 1204. In 1303 the Genoese obtained the privilege of building a wall around their thriving commercial colony, which they enlarged in successive steps until the mid-15th century. The walled Genoese city was crowned by the Tower of Christ (1348), which still stands today as the major landmark of the district. Dissociating themselves from the doomed capital of the Byzantine Empire, the Genoese surrendered the keys of their city to Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1444–46; 1451–81) upon the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and were rewarded with a peaceful integration of Galata into the new Ottoman capital as one of its four districts. The Galata tower was built as part of the 14th-century fortifications of Galata. It remained a landmark of the quarter under the Ottomans. (Photo by Gábor Ágoston). 226 Galata 227 Galata was founded as a Genoese trading colony on the northern shore of the Golden Horn opposite Byzantine Constantinople. In the Ottoman period it lost its specifically Genoese character but remained a preferred quarter for European residents of the city. (Photo by Gábor Ágoston) Under Ottoman rule, Galata was viewed as having a Western character, a view confirmed by the gradual move of foreign embassies into the district, the settlement of foreign traders (including Venetians, French, English, and Dutch), the preservation of a number of Latin churches, and the dedication of its port to Western trade. But this appearance masked the fact that, since the conquest, a growing number of churches were converted into mosques, large numbers of Muslims were settling in the western and eastern quarters of the district, and neighborhoods were developing around Galata, near the arsenal and the cannon foundry. By the end of the 17th century, although both Western and local observers continued to stress its “infidel” or non-Muslim character, Galata had in fact become a rather typical Ottoman town. Feeling squeezed in overcrowded Galata, the richest among the foreign merchants started moving up the hill, toward Pera, forming the nucleus of what would become the westernized res- idential district of Pera (Beyoğlu in Turkish) in the following centuries. The second half of the 18th century, however, was marked by a reversal of this trend. As European—especially French—influence grew stronger, Galata and its northern neighborhood of Pera started to attract growing numbers of local non-Muslims seeking the protection and security of the embassies and the benefits of foreign capitulations. By the mid-19th century, the whole area had started to take the lead in the process of westernization that swept the empire. A growing local non-Muslim bourgeoisie, primarily foreign diplomats and European traders, came to dominate the scene in this outpost of Western capitalism and culture. Innovations begun in the 19th century changed the outlook and organization of the district. These included bridges built across the Golden Horn in 1836 and 1845; the beginning of a stock exchange in 1852; the founding of the empire’s first municipal organization in 1857; the tearing down of the 228 Galatasaray Imperial Lycée medieval walls in 1864; and the introduction of streetcars (1871), an underground railroad (1875), and modern quays (1892). These completely transformed the area, turning it into a paragon of modernity. The process of modernization brought about a division of labor between the two districts. Galata thrived on the activity of the port and on modern businesses, such as banks, insurance companies, lawyers, and the import/export trade, while Pera’s high street, the Grand’rue de Péra, became the westernized residential and entertainment district of the city, with high-rise apartments, hotels, theaters, and bars. Along with these social and cultural changes, the demographic of the area changed as most remaining Muslim residents left, to be replaced by a growing concentration of Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and other foreigners. Edhem Eldem Further reading: Halil İnalcık, “Ottoman Galata, 1453– 1553,” in Première Rencontre Internationale sur l’Empire Ottoman et la Turquie Moderne, edited by Edhem Eldem, (Istanbul and Paris: Isis, 1991), 17–105; L. Mitler, “The Genoese in Galata: 1453–1682.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 71–91; John Freely, Galata: A Guide to Istanbul’s Old Genoese Quarter (Istanbul: Archaeology and Art Publications, 2000); Edhem Eldem, “The Ethnic Structure of Galata.” Biannual Istanbul 1 (1993): 28–33. The fortunes of Gaza began to decline in the 18th century as smaller towns, such as Jaffa and Acre, grew into important ports. Although Gaza retained its importance as a way station for the caravans between Egypt and Syria, the weakening of the central state meant that the governors of Gaza had fewer resources at their disposal to halt the increasingly aggressive Bedouin raids. Gaza’s population began to decline. Ottoman reports from the second half of the 18th century describe abandoned villages along the Mediterranean coastal plain of the province. While Gaza’s role as a gateway to Syria helped it to flourish commercially, it also meant that it became a staging point for armies coming from Egypt that sought to conquer Syria. Muhammad Abu al-Dhahab (1770), Napoleon Bonaparte (1799), and Ibrahim Pasha (1831) all besieged Gaza on their way north. The last invader was the British General Allenby who, having tried unsuccessfully several times, finally captured the city in 1917 during Britain’s campaign against the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I. Bruce Masters Further reading: Amnon Cohen, Palestine in the 18th Century: Patterns of Government and Administration (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1973). gazi Galatasaray Imperial Lycée See ghaza. See education. Gaza (Ar.: Ghazza; Heb.: Gaza; Turk.: Gazze) A port city located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, Gaza was the chief port of the region that today comprises Israel and the Palestinian Territories. In the early centuries of Ottoman rule, it was a major commercial center, serving the overland caravan route between Syria and Egypt. It was also an important stopping place for the annual hajj caravan from Egypt. In times when Bedouin raids made the interior pilgrims’ route from Damascus, the Sultan’s Road, impassable, pilgrims from Damascus would take a coastal route to Gaza; there they would meet up with pilgrims from Egypt and proceed together to Mecca. For most of the Ottoman period, Gaza was the capital of a sancak (subprovince) under the authority of the governor in Damascus. Typically the sancak governor was from the Mamluk household of Ridwan, which closely resembled the elite Mamluk households that were emerging in Egypt at this time. Members of the Ridwan household were also active in the politics of the neighboring district of Jerusalem. Under their patronage, Gaza became a center for Islamic learning, attracting scholars from throughout Palestine and southern Syria. Germany Germany only became a unified state in 1871, but relations between the Ottoman sultanate and various German principalities date back to the 15th century. German-Ottoman relations in the modern era took place primarily within the context of the Great Powers, a term coined in 1814 to identify the nations of western Europe and Russia that dominated international politics with their strong militaries and expanding industrial economies. One of the most important early areas of contact between the Ottomans and Germans was through the Prussian military, and military ties were the most enduring aspect of German-Ottoman relations throughout most of the 19th century; however, by the early 20th century, increasing commercial penetration by German banking and trade complicated German-Ottoman relations. EARLY CONTACT WITH THE PRUSSIAN MILITARY It has been reported that Frederick II of Prussia offered the Ottomans a military alliance in 1760, but the first official military exchange took place in 1789, when Selim III (r. 1789–1807) asked a Prussian officer to inspect the Ottoman army. By that time, there was already a long history of ex-soldiers and adventurers from Europe serving in the Ottoman military as mercenaries and technical

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