Many media reports in the past decade exposed egregious cases of forced labour, including that of 9 disabled people in brick kilns in Shanxi province.^[5] Cases of violations of labour standards are far fewer than before. One case in 2015 involved 16 mentally disabled people enslaved in a brickyard in Xishui, Guizhou province.^[6] Despite the persistence of cases of this nature, expert opinion suggests that the relative decrease in their frequency indicates an overall improvement in labour standards.^[7]

China still faces an enormous issue with the trafficking of women and children for forced marriage and the sex trade, both internally and on a transnational level as criminal gangs become more sophisticated.^[8] Illegal female immigrants are trafficked and sold as brides to Chinese men. For example, it is estimated that at least 90% of the estimated 15,000 North Korean women defectors in China end up as victims of trafficking.^[9]

Minority children (including the Uighur nationality) and those from very poor families are extremely vulnerable to trafficking. A highly organised practice exists where couples have children for the very purpose of selling.^[16] Children from minorities are known to be deceived into trafficking under the false promise of work in hospitality, construction and manufacturing but are instead forced to engage in criminal activity or prostitution.^[17] Forced begging is also an issue with the Ministry of Civil Affairs estimating 1.5 million children are currently enslaved.^[18]

China suffers a chronic gender imbalance because of the lasting impacts of the One Child Policy and the cultural preference for boys as children.^[19] Particularly in rural areas, this shortage of women generates a demand which only be satisfied by trafficking foreign women into China to be sold as cheap brides.^[20] For poor men in rural areas, this option is much less costly than the expenses (dowries and wedding gifts) required to marry a Chinese woman.^[21] This is exacerbated by the significant domestic marriage migration of rural women who choose to wed urban men in hope of a more comfortable life.^[22]

Because of the gender imbalance issue, both domestic and foreign women are subjected to forced marriage in China. The vulnerability of foreign women, whose origin countries include Thailand,^[23] Vietnam,^[24] Laos,^[25] Cambodia^[26] and North Korea,^[27] is very high because they are usually classified as illegal immigrants, leaving them with little capacity to seek help from local government.^[28] Due to increased awareness of deception as a trafficking tool, gangs increasingly rely on coercion and abduction.^[29] Because of this use increased of physical force, Chinese women are more vulnerable to slavery than before. More and more victims are being sold to by friends and relatives.^[30] Yunnan province is particularly active in human trafficking between China and Southeast Asia because it shares borders with Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.^[31] Henan province is a high recipient destination for women because of its low population of women relative to men,^[32] as well as Fujian, Guangdong and Shandong provinces.^[33]

The poor are vulnerable to slavery because they are more desperate and therefore more likely to be receptive to fraudulent offers of employment. This is significant as the National Bureau of Statistics estimates that 70,170,000 Chinese are still living in poverty.^[34] Disabled children of these families in particular face vulnerability as their parents or carers have limited means to look after them.^[35] This and the underdeveloped governmental support system mean that many are left abandoned.^[36] Demand still exists for forced labour of the disabled. In 2011, a journalist posed as a disabled person, lingering around a train station in Henan province which was a known source destination for trafficking victims. After two days he was abducted and sold as a slave to a brick kiln.^[37]

The Ministry of Child Protection has exhibited efforts to better engage with local governments to combat the issue of missing children. It conscientiously publicises and reports cases of missing children, taking their DNA samples^[42] and has developed a smartphone application for the quick reporting of those missing.^[43] Criminals found guilty of trafficking children and babies frequently receive the death penalty^[44] and cases are highly publicised with criminals being subjected to intense public criticism.^[45] 7,719 cases of trafficking of women and children were made between 2010 and 2014.^[46] However, local governments sometimes still fail to take cases of sexual abuse of boys seriously.^[47]

The Chinese government uses social media to spread awareness of cases of missing women and forced marriage.^[48] The MPS sometimes assists in the repatriation of foreign women, particularly in cases where geographical distances prevent them from easily returning home. However, some trafficking victims wish to stay in China as local conditions are better than those in their home countries. It is therefore difficult for the local government to devise a standard solution.^[49] Additionally, foreign women rarely make use of services such as women’s refuge shelters because of their illegal status.^[50]

The effectiveness of the implementation of the Action Plan is undermined by a phenomenon known as “local protectionism” whereby local officials prioritise economic performance and the appearance of social stability over anti-trafficking efforts.^[51] Additionally, labour^[52] and human trafficking laws^[53] protect only women and children, ignoring the exploitation of men and boys. It also remains unclear the extent to which Custody and Education Camps are an improvement on their predecessor (Re-education Through Labour or RTL camps). Officially abolished on 28th December 2013,^[54] political dissidents were subjected to forced labour, torture and terrible living conditions in the RTL camps. Some academics suggest that the Custody and Education camps are largely the same as these.^[55]

The media plays a critical role in uncovering issues by raising public awareness and attracting governmental attention. The same is true for the parents of lost children, who go to great lengths to raise public attention. The private sector has also made a positive contribution, as brands exert pressure^[56] on their suppliers to eliminate the unlawful employment of university interns in their supply chains.^[57]