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Link to original content: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23751257/
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Review
. 2014 Jan:101:4-14.
doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2013.05.015. Epub 2013 Jun 7.

Timing: an attribute of associative learning

Mikael Molet  1 , Ralph R Miller  2
Affiliations
Review

Timing: an attribute of associative learning

Mikael Molet et al. Behav Processes. 2014 Jan.

Abstract

The evidence reviewed in this paper suggests that when two events occur in spatiotemporal proximity to one another, an association between the two events is formed which encodes the timing of the events in relation to one another (including duration, order, and interval). The primary evidence supporting the view that temporal relationships are encoded is that subsequent presentation of one event ordinarily elicits behavior indicative of an expectation of the other event at a specific time. Thus, temporal relationships appear to be one of several attributes encoded at acquisition.

Keywords: Associative learning; Associative structure; Temporal coding; Temporal integration; Time.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
(A) Trace conditioning: The experimental condition, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Cole, Barnet, and Miller (1995, Experiment 1). (B) Simultaneous conditioning: The experimental condition, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Barnet, Arnold, and Miller (1991). (C) Backward conditioning: The experimental condition, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Molet, Miguez, Cham, and Miller (2012, Experiment 2). Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus. CR = strong conditioned responding (i.e., suppression).
Figure 2
Figure 2
(A) The experimental design and observed results of Amundson and Miller (2008, Experiment 3). Group Blocking Different assessed whether temporal information per se is encoded during training within a blocking procedure. (B) The experimental design and observed results of Blaisdell, Denniston, and Miller (1999, Experiment 1). Group Attenuation of Overshadowing assessed whether temporal information per se is encoded during retrospective revaluation training. Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus. CR = strong conditioned responding; Cr = medium conditioned responding; cr = little or no conditioned responding.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Experimental conditions and observed results of Denniston, Blaisdell, and Miller (2004, Experiment 1). (A) Negative summation was observed for XD but not for XC when the temporal relationship of A and the US was revalued. (B) However, without revaluation of the A-US temporal relationship, negative summation was observed for XC but not for XD. Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus. CR = strong conditioned responding; cr = little or no conditioned responding.
Figure 4
Figure 4
(A) Experimental design and observed results of Escobar and Miller (2003, Experiment 1). Group Diff. intervals assessed whether temporal intervals between cues encoded during training affected retroactive interference. (B) Experimental design and observed results of Escobar and Miller (2003, Experiment 2). Group Diff. X & A assessed whether cue durations encoded during training affected retroactive interference. (C) Experimental design and observed results of Escobar and Miller (2003, Experiment 3). Group Diff. O assessed whether outcome durations encoded during training affected retroactive interference Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus. CR = strong conditioned responding; cr = little or no conditioned responding.
Figure 5
Figure 5
(A) The sensory preconditioning experimental design, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed results of Molet, Miguez, Cham, and Miller (2012, Experiment 1). (B) The second-order conditioning experimental design, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Molet, Miguez, Cham, and Miller (2012, Experiment 2). In A and B, extinction of S2 during Phase 3 assessed whether integration occurred during Phase 2 training (i.e., before extinction of S2) or at the time of test (i.e., after extinction of S2). Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus; each dashed line represents the retrieved activation of a representation. CR = strong conditioned responding; cr = little or no conditioned responding.
Figure 6
Figure 6
The experimental design, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Polack, Molet, Miguez, and Miller (2013, Experiment 1). (A) Group Ext assessed whether integration resulted in a S1-US associative structure or could be the result of two independently learned interval maps that remain independently stored in memory. (B) Group Cont controlled for temporal integration. Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus; each dashed line represents the retrieved activation of a representation. CR = strong conditioned responding.
Figure 7
Figure 7
The experimental design, hypothetical temporal representations, and observed result of Arcediano, Escobar, and Miller (2005, Experiment 2). (A and B) Groups Ext-S1 and Ext-S2 assessed whether integration was based on two unidirectional links or one bidirectional link. (C) Group Ext-S3 controlled for temporal integration. Open rectangles and letters represent conditioned stimuli; black rectangles represent the footshock unconditioned stimulus; each dashed line represents the retrieved activation of a representation. CR = strong conditioned responding; cr = little or no conditioned responding.
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References

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