Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation for Multi-Label Classification on Nonintrusive Load Monitoring
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- We conduct the first classification study in the domain adaptation field for NILM;
- We show performance improvements by incorporating robust feature information distillation techniques based on the teacher–student structure into domain adaptation;
- The decision boundaries are refined through PL-based domain stabilization.
2. Related Work
2.1. Nonintrusive Load Monitoring
2.2. Domain Adaptation
3. Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation for Multi-Label Classification on Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring
3.1. Network Architecture
- (1)
- Knowledge distillation: knowledge is distilled using a TCN feature extraction-based teacher–student network to receive robust domain-independent features of source data. TCN is an extended time-series data modeling structure in CNN. It provides better performance than typical time-series deep learning models such as LSTM because it has a much longer and more effective memory without a gate mechanism. The TCN consists of several residual blocks, and this block consists of a dilated casual convolution operation O. For input and filter , at point is defined by Equation (3).
- (2)
- Robust domain adaptation: domain adaptation is performed with robust features extracted with knowledge distillation to obtain domain-independent features. Domain adaptation consists of the following three stages: feature extractor, domain classifier, and appliance usage detection. First, a feature extractor of SN is used. A feature extractor of the source data and an of the target data share a parameter set. Models learned with only source data are difficult to express with target data. To adapt the target domain data representation to , the model learns the feature distribution difference between the two domains using MMD and minimizes it. The MMD distance is obtained as follows:
- (3)
- Domain stabilization: The target domain data is pseudo-labeled with to enhance the data, thereby stabilizing the domain and improving the performance of the network. First, the feature of the target domain data is input to the . If is obtained through Equation (14), PL is generated as a prediction value having the highest probability among values. However, if the probability is lower than the threshold, the data is not pseudo-labeled. The threshold is obtained experimentally. Domain stabilization consists of three steps, such as feature extraction and domain classifier. Appliance usage detection uses the following three types of data: source data (, ), pseudo-labeled target data (, ), and unlabeled target data . For feature extraction, , and are output through . DC has no change in the domain, , and are classified as inputs, as in Equations (12) and (13). The appliance usage detection performs .
3.2. Network Losses
- (1)
- Knowledge distillation loss: As shown in Figure 1, the knowledge distillation phase loss is the sum of the distillation loss and student loss . is to include the difference in the classification results of the TN and the SN in the loss. is defined as follows:Even in a network with relatively fewer parameters than in the TN, is also reduced when is smaller, so it shows good feature extraction and classification performance.
- (2)
- Feature distribution difference loss: As shown in Figure 1, the feature distribution difference loss is MMD Loss [44] . estimates the difference between the feature distribution of the source domain data and the feature distribution of the target domain data through MMD. is generally defined as follows:For the mapping function of Equation (17), we use kernel tricks because computational resources are required too much to obtain all the moments. We utilize the Gaussian kernel as shown in Equation (18).Since Equation (19) contains all the moments for x, we use the Gaussian kernel. Gis derived as Equation (20).When Equation (15) is organized using Equation (20), is re-formulated as shown in Equation (21).
- (3)
- Domain classification loss: As shown in Figure 1, the domain classification loss is related to and . is modeled so that the source domain and the target domain cannot be distinguished. To minimize the distribution difference between and , the loss of should be maximized. Using and of , cross-entropy loss as a binary classifier-based can be obtained as Equation (22).
- (4)
- Appliance usage detection loss: as shown in Figure 1, the appliance usage detection loss uses in the domain adaptation phase and in the robust domain adaptation phase. Since both losses are applied to the same , the same loss equation is formularized as in Equations (23) and (24).Each neural network is learned by differentiating loss with corresponding weights, as shown in the dotted line in Figure 1.
3.3. Training Strategy
Algorithm 1: Parameter optimization procedure of the proposed method. |
Input with M total samples, respectively. Output # Knowledge Distillation Phase for m = 0 to epochs do for n to minibatch do #Foward propagation Teacher: , Student: , , , #Back propagation end for end for # Domain Adaptation Phase for m = 0 to epochs do for n to minibatch do #Foward propagation Source: Target: , #Back propagation end for end for # Robust Domain Adaptation Phase #Pseudo labeling , for m = 0 to epochs do for n to minibatch do #Foward propagation Source: Target: , Pseudo Target: #Back propagation end for end for |
4. Experiments
4.1. Data Preparation
4.1.1. Dataset
4.1.2. Data Preprocessing
4.2. Experimental Setup
4.2.1. Implementation Configuration
4.2.2. Ablation Study Methods
- Baseline: Typical domain adaptation method with BiLSTM-based feature extractors;
- TCN-DA: Domain adaptation method with TCN-based feature extractor;
- gkMMD-DA: Domain adaptation method with Gaussian kernel trick-based MMD Loss in baseline;
- TS-DA: A domain adaptation method for extracting features based on the robust knowledge distillation of the teacher–student structure. The feature extractor of SN used BiLSTM, such as the baseline, and the feature extractor of TN used BiLSTM, which is four times the size of the student;
- PL-DA: How to perform domain optimization with pseudo labeling on baseline method
4.2.3. Evaluation Metrics
4.3. Case Studies and Discussions
4.3.1. Domain Adaptation within the Same Dataset
4.3.2. Domain Adaptation between Different Datasets
4.3.3. Discussions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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UK-DALE | REDD | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
House 1 | House 2 | House 1 | House 3 | |||||
Appliance | Threshold | The Number of ON Event | Threshold | The Number of ON Event | Threshold | The Number of ON Event | Threshold | The Number of ON Event |
DW | 2000 | 4431 | 1800 | 3236 | 1000 | 6712 | 650 | 2934 |
FG | 250 | 2441 | 400 | 5291 | 400 | 2944 | 350 | 3344 |
KT | 2200 | 4495 | 2000 | 1694 | - | - | - | - |
MV | 1400 | 1242 | 1200 | 4218 | 1200 | 4809 | 1600 | 1327 |
WM | 1800 | 4980 | 1500 | 1524 | 2500 | 4796 | 2200 | 5764 |
Parameter Description | Value |
---|---|
Number of TCN blocks | 8 (TN) |
5 (SN) | |
Number of filters in each TCN block | 128 (TN) |
64 (SN) | |
Filter size | 3 |
Number of fully connected layers | 5 (TN) |
3 (SN) | |
2 (Domain Classifier) | |
Dilation factor | |
Activation function | ReLU |
Dropout probability | 0.1 |
Number of maximum epochs | 200 |
Number of minimum early stopping epochs | 4 |
Mini-batch size | 512 |
Learning rate | 3 × 10−3 |
Appliance | Method | UK-DALE | REDD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DW | Baseline | 0.781 | 0.805 | ||
TCN-DA | 0.832 | 0.827 | |||
gkMMD-DA | 0.778 | 0.793 | |||
TS-DA | 0.812 | 0.826 | |||
PL-DA | 0.787 | 0.811 | |||
Ours | 0.822 | 0.832 | |||
Improvement | 5.25% | 3.35% | |||
FG | Baseline | 0.833 | 0.834 | 0.817 | 0.818 |
TCN-DA | 0.842 | 0.841 | 0.829 | 0.840 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.837 | 0.836 | 0.819 | 0.819 | |
TS-DA | 0.850 | 0.853 | 0.824 | 0.827 | |
PL-DA | 0.834 | 0.845 | 0.818 | 0.819 | |
Ours | 0.875 | 0.872 | 0.843 | 0.852 | |
Improvement | 5.04% | 4.56% | 3.18% | 4.16% | |
KT | Baseline | 0.761 | 0.832 | ||
TCN-DA | 0.811 | 0.839 | |||
gkMMD-DA | 0.753 | 0.820 | |||
TS-DA | 0.807 | 0.835 | |||
PL-DA | 0.770 | 0.833 | |||
Ours | 0.817 | 0.868 | |||
Improvement | 7.36% | 4.33% | |||
MV | Baseline | 0.742 | 0.791 | 0.793 | 0.790 |
TCN-DA | 0.751 | 0.798 | 0.806 | 0.721 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.746 | 0.795 | 0.797 | 0.774 | |
TS-DA | 0.753 | 0.803 | 0.804 | 0.798 | |
PL-DA | 0.744 | 0.796 | 0.794 | 0.793 | |
Ours | 0.774 | 0.812 | 0.814 | 0.818 | |
Improvement | 4.31% | 2.65% | 2.65% | 3.54% | |
WM | Baseline | 0.615 | 0.611 | 0.841 | 0.782 |
TCN-DA | 0.725 | 0.708 | 0.844 | 0.799 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.623 | 0.625 | 0.842 | 0.786 | |
TS-DA | 0.668 | 0.653 | 0.832 | 0.783 | |
PL-DA | 0.623 | 0.615 | 0.843 | 0.783 | |
Ours | 0.736 | 0.713 | 0.870 | 0.832 | |
Improvement | 19.67% | 16.69% | 3.45% | 6.39% |
Appliance | UK-DALE | REDD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
DW | 0.823 | 0.828 | ||
FG | 0.857 | 0.854 | 0.834 | 0.847 |
KT | 0.813 | 0.841 | ||
MV | 0.762 | 0.805 | 0.809 | 0.764 |
WM | 0.730 | 0.709 | 0.852 | 0.815 |
Appliance | Method | ||
---|---|---|---|
DW | Baseline | 0.741 | 0.712 |
TCN-DA | 0.779 | 0.737 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.736 | 0.713 | |
TS-DA | 0.770 | 0.745 | |
PL-DA | 0.747 | 0.714 | |
Ours | 0.778 | 0.747 | |
Improvement | 4.99% | 4.92% | |
FG | Baseline | 0.786 | 0.764 |
TCN-DA | 0.794 | 0.787 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.787 | 0.769 | |
TS-DA | 0.800 | 0.772 | |
PL-DA | 0.787 | 0.770 | |
Ours | 0.821 | 0.797 | |
Improvement | 4.45% | 4.32% | |
MV | Baseline | 0.719 | 0.739 |
TCN-DA | 0.726 | 0.716 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.719 | 0.746 | |
TS-DA | 0.729 | 0.749 | |
PL-DA | 0.717 | 0.743 | |
Ours | 0.742 | 0.763 | |
Improvement | 3.2% | 3.25% | |
WM | Baseline | 0.563 | 0.758 |
TCN-DA | 0.669 | 0.773 | |
gkMMD-DA | 0.573 | 0.766 | |
TS-DA | 0.610 | 0.758 | |
PL-DA | 0.568 | 0.763 | |
Ours | 0.672 | 0.769 | |
Improvement | 19.36% | 1.45% |
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Hur, C.-H.; Lee, H.-E.; Kim, Y.-J.; Kang, S.-G. Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation for Multi-Label Classification on Nonintrusive Load Monitoring. Sensors 2022, 22, 5838. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155838
Hur C-H, Lee H-E, Kim Y-J, Kang S-G. Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation for Multi-Label Classification on Nonintrusive Load Monitoring. Sensors. 2022; 22(15):5838. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155838
Chicago/Turabian StyleHur, Cheong-Hwan, Han-Eum Lee, Young-Joo Kim, and Sang-Gil Kang. 2022. "Semi-Supervised Domain Adaptation for Multi-Label Classification on Nonintrusive Load Monitoring" Sensors 22, no. 15: 5838. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155838