Navodnjavanje

Navodnjavanje je naziv za hidrotehničku mjeru poboljšavanja fizičkih osobina tla dodavanjem vode da bi se postigla optimalna vlaga za vrijeme vegetacije i time postigao optimalan urod. Navodnjavanje može trajati jedim dijelom vegetacije ili tokom cijelog vegetacijskog perioda. Voda se koristi iz raznih vodenih tokova, umjetnih jezera, izvora, podzemlja ili iz pročišćenih otpadnih voda. Po načinu pretvaranja toka vode u kapilarnu vodu u tlu postoje tri metode: površinsko, podzemno, i kišenje (orošavanje).

Obim

U 2000. godini ukupna plodna zemlja iznosila je 2.788.000 km² (689 miliona hektara) i bila je opremljena infrastrukturom za navodnjavanje širom svijeta. Oko 68% ove oblasti je u Aziji, 17% u Americi, 9% u Evropi, 5% u Africi i 1% u Okeaniji. Najveća susjedna područja visoke gustine navodnjavanja nalaze se u sjevernoj i istočnoj Indiji i Pakistanu duž rijeka Gang i Ind; u basenima Hai He, Žuta rijeka i Yangtze u Kini; duž rijeke Nil u Egiptu i Sudanu; i u slivu rijeke Mississippi-Missouri, južne velike ravnice i u dijelovima Kalifornije u Sjedinjenim Državama. Manje površine za navodnjavanje rasprostranjene su po gotovo svim naseljenim dijelovima svijeta.^[1]

Do 2012. godine površina navodnjavanog zemljišta se povećala na procijenjenih ukupno 3,242,917 km² (801 milion hektara), što je skoro veličina Indije.^[2] Navodnjavanje 20% poljoprivrednog zemljišta čini proizvodnju 40% proizvodnje hrane.^[3]^[4]

Globalni pregled

Obim navodnjavanja se dramatično povećao tokom 20. vijeka. 1800. godine navodnjavano je 8 miliona hektara u svijetu, 1950. godine 94 miliona hektara, a 1990. godine 235 miliona hektara. Do 1990. godine, 30% svjetske proizvodnje hrane dolazilo je od navodnjavanog zemljišta.^[5] Tehnike navodnjavanja širom svijeta uključuju kanale koji preusmjeravaju površinske vode,^[6]^[7] crpljenje podzemnih voda i preusmjeravanje vode sa brana. Nacionalne vlade vode većinu šema navodnjavanja unutar svojih granica, ali privatni investitori[9] i druge nacije,^[8] posebno Sjedinjene Države,^[9] Kina,^[10] i evropske zemlje poput Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva,^[11] također finansiraju i organizuju navodnjavanje unutar drugih nacija.

Navodnjavanje omogućava proizvodnju više usjeva, posebno robnih na područjima koja ih inače ne bi mogla izdržavati. Zemlje su često ulagale u navodnjavanje kako bi povećale proizvodnju pšenice, riže ili pamuka, često sa sveobuhvatnim ciljem povećanja samodovoljnosti.^[11]

Također pogledajte

Akvadukt

Izvori

^ Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Döll, J-M. Faurès, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (10. 11. 2006). "The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas – Development and Validation of Map Version 4" (PDF). Tropentag 2006 – Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development. Bonn, Germany. Pristupljeno 14. 3. 2007.CS1 održavanje: više imena: authors list (link)
^ The World. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
^ "On Water". European Investment Bank (jezik: engleski). Pristupljeno 7. 12. 2020.
^ "Water in Agriculture". World Bank (jezik: engleski). Pristupljeno 7. 12. 2020.
^ McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 180-181.
^ McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 174.
^ Peterson, Maya. US to USSR: American Experts, Irrigation, and Cotton in Soviet Central Asia, 1929–32. Environmental History 21, no. 3 (July 2016). str. 442–466.
^ McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 153.
^ Ekbladh, David (2002). Mr. TVA’: Grass-Roots Development, David Lilienthal, and the Rise and Fall of the Tennessee Valley Authority as a Symbol for U.S. Overseas Development, 1933-1973. Diplomatic History 29, no. 3. str. 337.
^ Bosshard, Peter (2009). China Dams the World. World Policy Journal 26, no. 4. str. 43–51.
^ ^a ^b McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 169-170.

Dodatna literatura

Bosshard, Peter. “China Dams the World.” World Policy Journal 26, no. 4 (2009): 43–51.
Ekbladh, David. “‘Mr. TVA’: Grass-Roots Development, David Lilienthal, and the Rise and Fall of the Tennessee Valley Authority as a Symbol for U.S. Overseas Development, 1933-1973.” Diplomatic History 29, no. 3 (Summer 2002): 335–74.
Johnson, Matthew P. “Swampy Sugar Lands: Irrigation Dams and the Rise and Fall of Malaria in Puerto Rico, 1898–1962.” Journal of Latin American Studies 51, no. 2 (May 2019): 243–71. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X18000743.
Lyster, Rosa. “Along the Water.” London Review of Books, May 6, 2021. https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v43/n09/rosa-lyster/diary.
McCully, Patrick. Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. Enlarged&Updated ed. London ; New York: Zed Books, 2001.
McNeill, John Robert. Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2000.
Parker, James. “A ‘Juggernaut of Progress’? Irrigation and Statecraft in Late-Colonial Kenya.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 53, no. 3 (September 2020): 335–59.
Peterson, Maya. “US to USSR: American Experts, Irrigation, and Cotton in Soviet Central Asia, 1929–32.” Environmental History 21, no. 3 (July 2016): 442–66. https://doi.org/10.1093/envhis/emw006.
Ross, Corey. Ecology and Power in the Age of Empire: Europe and the Transformation of the Tropical World. First edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Pisani, Donald J. Water and American Government: The Reclamation Bureau, National Water Policy, and the West, 1902-1935. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
Visser, Wessel. “Water as Agent for Social Change, 1900–1939 : Two Case Studies of Developmental State Approaches in Establishing Irrigation Schemes.” Historia 63, no. 2 (November 2018): 40–61. https://doi.org/10.17159/2309-8392/2018/v63n2a3.
Worster, Donald. Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West. New York ; Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Vanjski linkovi

Royal Engineers Museum Arhivirano 30. 7. 2010. na Wayback Machine
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
Irrigation Arhivirano 8. 10. 2009. na Wayback Machine
AQUASTAT
[1]
Guide to Irrigation

Logo Commonsa

Irrigation na Wikimedia Commonsu.

[1] Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Döll, J-M. Faurès, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (10. 11. 2006). "The Digital Global Map of Irrigation Areas – Development and Validation of Map Version 4" (PDF). Tropentag 2006 – Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development. Bonn, Germany. Pristupljeno 14. 3. 2007.CS1 održavanje: više imena: authors list (link)

[2] The World. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.

[3] "On Water". European Investment Bank (jezik: engleski). Pristupljeno 7. 12. 2020.

[4] "Water in Agriculture". World Bank (jezik: engleski). Pristupljeno 7. 12. 2020.

[5] McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 180-181.

[6] McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 174.

[7] Peterson, Maya. US to USSR: American Experts, Irrigation, and Cotton in Soviet Central Asia, 1929–32. Environmental History 21, no. 3 (July 2016). str. 442–466.

[8] McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 153.

[9] Ekbladh, David (2002). Mr. TVA’: Grass-Roots Development, David Lilienthal, and the Rise and Fall of the Tennessee Valley Authority as a Symbol for U.S. Overseas Development, 1933-1973. Diplomatic History 29, no. 3. str. 337.

[10] Bosshard, Peter (2009). China Dams the World. World Policy Journal 26, no. 4. str. 43–51.

[:0-11] McNeill, John Robert (2000). Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. str. 169-170.

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