{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,13]],"date-time":"2024-09-13T05:15:38Z","timestamp":1726204538440},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Project GreenAuto: Green Innovation for the Automotive Industry","award":["C644867037-00000013"]},{"name":"Recovery and Resilience Plan and by European Funds NextGenerationEU"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"This paper addresses indoor localization using an anchor-based system based on Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) 5.0 technology, adopting the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) for the distance estimation. Different solutions have been proposed in the scientific literature to improve the performance of this localization technology, but a detailed performance comparison of these solutions is still missing. The aim of this work is to make an experimental analysis combining different solutions for the performance improvement of BLE-based indoor localization, identifying the most effective one. The considered solutions involve different RSSI signals\u2019 conditioning, the use of anchor\u2013tag distance estimation techniques, as well as approaches for estimating the unknown tag position. An experimental campaign was executed in a complex indoor environment, characterized by the continuous presence in the movement of working staff and numerous obstacles. The exploitation of multichannel transmission using RSSI signal aggregation techniques showed the greater performance improvement of the localization system, reducing the positioning error (from 1.5 m to about 1 m). The other examined solutions have shown a lesser impact in the performance improvement with a decrease or an increase in the positioning errors, depending on the considered combination of the adopted solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s24020376","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T11:12:58Z","timestamp":1704712378000},"page":"376","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["BLE-Based Indoor Localization: Analysis of Some Solutions for Performance Improvement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3811-5084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Milano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7736-5444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helbert","family":"da Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, 6200-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Delega\u00e7\u00e3o da Covilh\u00e3, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0002-7118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Laracca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Astronautics, Electrical and Energy Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1724-5720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Ferrigno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9540-8900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Esp\u00edrito Santo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, 6200-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Delega\u00e7\u00e3o da Covilh\u00e3, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9839-8015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Salvado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, 6200-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Delega\u00e7\u00e3o da Covilh\u00e3, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9284-1741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Paciello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaim, D., and Bellafkih, M. (2016, January 19\u201320). Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) based geomarketing system. Proceedings of the 2016 11th International Conference on Intelligent Systems: Theories and Applications (SITA), Mohammedia, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/SITA.2016.7772263"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerreiro, J.A., Ahmetovic, D., Sato, D., Kitani, K., and Asakawa, C. (2019, January 4\u20139). Airport Accessibility and Navigation Assistance for People with Visual Impairments. Proceedings of the CHI\u201919: 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300246"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cerro, G., Ferrigno, L., Laracca, M., Milano, F., Carbone, P., Comuniello, A., De Angelis, A., and Moschitta, A. (2018, January 20\u201322). Probe Localization by Magnetic Measurements in Eddy-Current Nondestructive Testing Environment. Proceedings of the 2018 5th IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace.2018.8453551"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrigno, L., Miele, G., Milano, F., Rodio, A., Santoni, F., De Angelis, A., Moschitta, A., Carbone, P., and Cerro, G. (July, January 1). A real-time tracking system for tremor and trajectory estimation in Parkinson\u2019s disease affected patients. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Bari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA49120.2020.9137210"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giuliano, R., Cardarilli, G.C., Cesarini, C., Di Nunzio, L., Fallucchi, F., Fazzolari, R., Mazzenga, F., Re, M., and Vizzarri, A. (2020). Indoor Localization System Based on Bluetooth Low Energy for Museum Applications. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9061055"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zualkernan, I.A., Pasquier, M., Shahriar, S., Towheed, M., and Sujith, S. (2020, January 19\u201322). Using BLE beacons and Machine Learning for Personalized Customer Experience in Smart Caf\u00e9s. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Electronics, Information, and Communication (ICEIC), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEIC49074.2020.9051187"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136858","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3012342","article-title":"A low cost indoor positioning system using bluetooth low energy","volume":"8","author":"Bai","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2022.109472","article-title":"Plug-Mate: An IoT-based occupancy-driven plug load management system in smart buildings","volume":"223","author":"Tekler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippoupolitis, A., Oliff, W., and Loukas, G. (2016, January 14\u201316). Bluetooth Low Energy Based Occupancy Detection for Emergency Management. Proceedings of the 2016 15th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Communications and 2016 International Symposium on Cyberspace and Security (IUCC-CSS), Granada, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IUCC-CSS.2016.013"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2022.109689","article-title":"Occupancy prediction using deep learning approaches across multiple space types: A minimum sensing strategy","volume":"226","author":"Tekler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"SIG, I.B. (2023, June 27). The Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy Primer|Bluetooth\u00ae Technology Website, White Paper. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Bluetooth_LE_Primer_Paper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"SIG, I.B. (2023, June 28). An Introduction to Bluetooth Beacons, White Paper. Available online: http:\/\/pages.silabs.com\/rs\/634-SLU-379\/images\/Whitepaper-Developing-Beacons-with-Bluetooth-Low-Energy-Technology.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700053","article-title":"Bluetooth 5: A Concrete Step Forward toward the IoT","volume":"56","author":"Collotta","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cant\u00f3n Paterna, V., Calveras Auge, A., Paradells Aspas, J., and Perez Bullones, M.A. (2017). A bluetooth low energy indoor positioning system with channel diversity, weighted trilateration and kalman filtering. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122927"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00f6besaat, J., Zhang, P., Abdelaal, M., and Theel, O. (2017). An improved BLE indoor localization with Kalman-based fusion: An experimental study. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17050951"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.107842","article-title":"A multi-frequency approach to mitigate the performance degradation of a magnetic positioning system under CW disturbance conditions","volume":"161","author":"Capriglione","year":"2020","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbula, D., and Ljubic, S. (2020). Indoor Localization Based on Infrared Angle of Arrival Sensor Network. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20216278"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Rajagopal, N., Rowe, A., Sinopoli, B., and Gao, J. (2019, January 5\u20138). Efficient Beacon Placement Algorithms for Time-of-Flight Indoor Localization. Proceedings of the SIGSPATIAL\u201919: 27th ACM SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3347146.3359344"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8164","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2980966","article-title":"A Novel Trilateration Algorithm for RSSI-Based Indoor Localization","volume":"20","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2955080","article-title":"BuSAR: Bluetooth Slot Availability Randomization for Better Coexistence With Dense Wi-Fi Networks","volume":"20","author":"Shao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capriglione, D., Ferrigno, L., D\u2019Orazio, E., Paciello, V., and Pietrosanto, A. (2012, January 13\u201316). Reliability analysis of RSSI for localization in small scale WSNs. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings, Graz, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2012.6229301"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, G., Geng, E., Ye, Z., Xu, Y., Lin, J., and Pang, Y. (2018). Indoor Positioning Algorithm Based on the Improved RSSI Distance Model. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092820"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, C., Sashank, G.V.S., N, V., and Markkandan, S. (2021, January 25\u201327). Low-cost BLE based Indoor Localization using RSSI Fingerprinting and Machine Learning. Proceedings of the 2021 Sixth International Conference on Wireless Communications, Signal Processing and Networking (WiSPNET), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiSPNET51692.2021.9419388"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2017.2788449","article-title":"BLE Beacons for Internet of Things Applications: Survey, Challenges, and Opportunities","volume":"5","author":"Jeon","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Bluetooth SIG Proprietary (2022, July 04). Bluetooth 4.0 Core Specification. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.org\/docman\/handlers\/downloaddoc.ashx?doc_id=456433."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.35940\/ijrte.C4413.099320","article-title":"RSSI filtering methods applied to localization using Bluetooth low energy","volume":"9","author":"Kaduskar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Recent Technol. Eng. (IJRTE)"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qureshi, U.M., Umair, Z., and Hancke, G.P. (2019). Evaluating the Implications of Varying Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Transmission Power Levels on Wireless Indoor Localization Accuracy and Precision. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153282"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-017-4371-4","article-title":"Bluetooth Indoor Positioning Based on RSSI and Kalman Filter","volume":"96","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1137\/S1052623496303470","article-title":"Convergence properties of the Nelder\u2013Mead simplex method in low dimensions","volume":"9","author":"Lagarias","year":"1998","journal-title":"SIAM J. Optim."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2022, July 04). EFR32BG13 Blue Gecko Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy SoC Family Data Sheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.silabs.com\/documents\/public\/data-sheets\/efr32bg13-datasheet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrigno, L., Milano, F., Esp\u00edrito-Santo, A., Salvado, J., Laracca, M., and Paciello, V. (2021, January 13\u201316). On the Power Consumption of a Bluetooth Device Operating in Beacon Mode. Proceedings of the IECON 2021\u201447th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON48115.2021.9589601"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/376\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T11:30:20Z","timestamp":1704713420000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/24\/2\/376"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s24020376"],"URL":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390\/s24020376","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]}}}
