Mpondo people
 The son of Mpondo King Faku (before 1864) | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| ~5 million[1][2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 South Africa | |
| Languages | |
| IsiXhosa, English | |
| Religion | |
| Christianity, African Traditional Religion | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Xhosa, Mpondomise, Thembu, Xesibe Swati, Hlubi, Zulu other Bantu peoples |
| The Ama-Mpondo Nation | |
|---|---|
| Person | I-Mpondo |
| People | Ama-Mpondo |
| Language | Isi-Xhosa |
| Country | Ema-Mpondweni |
The Mpondo-People, or simply batter known as Ama-Mpondo, is a kingdom in what is now known as the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.[3][2] It was established in March 1224. The Ama-Mpondo-Nation was first ruled by its founder who was King Mpondo ka-Njanya who lived around [born in 1204 and died in 1280] and later the 'Ama-Nyawuza' clan (a royal clan of the Ama-Mpondo-nation), by nationality referred to themselves as 'Ama-Mpondo'. They are related to other Aba-Mbo-People's and chiefdoms in South Africa.
Origins
[edit] | This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as it is meandering and ungrammatical, most notably in the opening sentences. (June 2020) |
The story of the origins of ema-Mpondweni/Mpondoland was told to personify and symbolise the fact that it was a nation with lands shaped like a horn, when it includes the lands ema-Mpondomiseni, and to make it easier for telling Iintsomi, meaning educative stories. Taking Prince Mpondo as the son since it was used for defending and Prince Mpondomise as the elder son since it was used for attacking and negotiation. Thus according to the Ama-Mpondo oral tradition, they are the legendary descendants of King Mpondo himself the son of King Khubazi or otherwise Known as Njanya, the grandson of King Sibiside who was the leader of the once-powerful Embo-nation (Aba-Mbo or Ma-Mbo). the Mpondo people themselves are part of the Aba-Mbo-group are one of the few tribes that resided with the San bushman long before other tribes arrived.They are as indigenous as the San, Amampondomise, khoi and AmaXesibe in Southern Africa. This is evident from the ruling plant in the coast south-east of Africa and north-west of Madagascar, the marijuana plant. It grows in abundance from ema-Mpondweni/Mpondoland up the coast and the coast of Madagascar. It is through king Sibiside that he is the Mpondo-people's forefather of the nation emerges together with other well-known nations. Mpondo-people share a common lineage with Ama-Mpondomise-people, Ama-Xesibe-People, Abakwa-Mkhize-Chieftaincy, Ama-Bomvu or Ama-Bomvana-Nation.[citation needed]
King Sibiside's offspring:[4]
- Prince Mavovo
(King Sibiside's heir and father of the Mkhize-clan)
- Princess Nomafu
(Ama-Bomvu or Ama-Bomvana)
- Prince Khubazi {•Njanya•}
(Ama-Mpondo, Ama-Mpondomise, Ama-Xesibe)
Mpondo-People and Mpondomise were twins. There is an ongoing argument about the twin who was the eldest, the most commonly held view is that Prince Mpondomise is the senior twin. It is said that while out hunting, Prince Mpondo killed a lion and refused to hand over the skin to Prince Mpondomise as was the custom (the senior was entitled to skins of certain animals).[5] The tension between the two started from that day and Prince Mpondo and his followers were the first ones to leave and settle elsewhere away from their father's land.
King Shaka's invasion on the Ama-Mpondo-Kingdom
[edit]When Mpondo King Faku was attacked by Zulu-King Shaka Ka-Senzakhona, he appealed to the Thembu King Ngubengcuka and the Xhosa King Hintsa for help with defeating the Zulu-king Shaka and the message was also sent to Grahamstown by time Grahamstown had sent their soldiers to complement the Xhosa, Thembu and Mpondo armies, King Shaka's warriors were long gone the combined force then proceeded to attack AmaNgwane thinking it was Ama-Zulu.[6]
The Ama-Ngwane warriors died in large numbers on that day and were successfully expelled from Thembu|land Some became refugees hiding in the mountains all of their cattle were taken and there was not even a cow for remaining the surviving the Ngwane-people submitted themselves to the AbaThembu others went to join AmaMpondo and other Kingdoms.[7]
Ama-Mpondo-Kingdom
[edit]The great house of Mpondo is called Ndimakude Great Palace and is situated in Flagstaff, Eastern Cape. The right-hand house is called Nyandeni Great Place and is situated in Libode, Eastern Cape. The Nyandeni house enjoyed autonomy for decades and was often referred to as Western Mpondo-land, while the Qawukeni house was referred to as Eastern Mpondo-land.
The towns in the Mpondo-kingdom include Lusikisiki, Siphaqeni (known as Flagstaff), Mbizana (erroneously called Bizana), Ntabankulu, Port St. Johns, Libode and Ngqeleni.
Mzintlava (now known as Kokstad) was allotted to Adam Kok of the Griquas.[8]
- King Mnguni-1st (Son of ???????????)
[Fathered:Prince Yeyeye-1st]
- King Yeyeye-1st (Son of Mnguni-1st)
[Fathered:Prince Godongwane-1st]
- King Godongwane-1st (Son of Yeyeye-1st)
[Fathered:Prince Yeyeye-2nd]
- King Yeyeye-2nd (Son of Godongwane-1st)
[Fathered:Prince Godongwane-2nd]
- King Godongwane-2nd (Son of Yeyeye-2nd)
[Fathered:Prince Ntunsingana]
- King Ntunsingana (Son of Godongwane-2nd)
[Fathered:Prince Mumbo & Prince Mbhinja & Prince Mntalaba]
- King Mumbo (Son of Ntunsingana)
[Fathered:Prince Hlumbo]
- King Hlumbo (Son of Mumbo)
[Fathered:Prince Mbokane]
- King Mbokane (Son of Hlumbo)
[Fathered:Prince Lumbazane]
- King Lumbane (Son of Mbokane)
[Fathered:Prince Lobamba]
- King Lobamba (Son of Lumbane)
[Fathered:Prince Lubombo]
- King Lubombo (Son of Lobamba)
[Fathered:Prince Lobamba]
- King Mbabane (Son of Lubombo)
[Fathered:Prince Mankayane & Prince Shlengene]
- King Mankayane (Son of Mbabane)
[Fathered:Prince Hlathikhulu]
- King Hlathikhulu (Son of Mankayane)
[Fathered:Prince Zumbane & Prince Zambuka & Prince Zamula & Prince Mjakane]
- King Zumbane (Son of Hlathikhulu)
[Fathered:Prince Nhlangano]
- King Nhlangano (Son of Zumbane)
[Fathered:Prince Mbombela]
- King Mbombela (Son of Nhlangano)
[Fathered:Prince Zehlendaba]
- King Zehlendaba (Son of Mbombela)
[Fathered:Prince Gubhela]
- King Gubhela (Son of Zehlendaba)
[Fathered:Prince Khubone]
- King Khubone (Son of Gubhela)
[Fathered:Prince Mgebelezana]
- King Mgebelezana (Son of Khubone)
[Fathered:Prince Ndlozela]
- King Ndlozela (Son of Mgebelezana)
[Fathered:Prince Sidwabasiluthuli]
- King Sidwabasiluthuli (Son of Ndlozela)
[Fathered:Prince Sibiside & Prince Nyamuzi]
- King Sibiside (Son of Sidwabasiluthuli)
[Fathered:Prince Khubazi (•Njanya•) & Prince Ngcongo & Prince Hlengwa & Prince Shange & Princess Nomafu]
(Born:1120-Died:1202)
- King Khubazi [•Njanya•] (Son of Sibiside)
[Fathered:Prince Mpondo & Prince Mpondomise & Prince Xesibe & Prince Nyambose & Prince Chibi]
(Born:1151-Died:1225)
- King Mpondo (Son of Khubazi)
[Fathered:Prince Sithula & Prince Ntusi & Prince Qhwane & Prince Phika]
(Born:1204-Died:1280)[Reigned:1224 Till 1280]
- King Sithula (Son of Mpondo)
[Fathered:Prince Mithwa & Prince Khwalo & Prince Gingqi & Prince Khuwana]
(Born:1232-Died:1318)[Reigned:1280 Till 1318]
- King Mithwa (Son of Sithula)
[Fathered:Prince Santsabe & Prince Ndovelane & Prince Mbangweni & Prince Gavula & Prince Luvozana]
(Born:1264-Died:1351)[Reigned:1318 Till 1351]
- King Santsabe (Son of Mithwa)
[Fathered:Prince Khondwane & Prince Bumbantaba & Prince Maphise & Prince Khanyajo]
(Born:1303-Died:1385)[Reigned:1351 Till 1385]
- King Khondwane (Son of Santsabe)
[Fathered:Prince Sukude & Prince Ntlane & Prince Gcutha & Prince Valela & Prince Woshe]
(Born:1347-Died:1425)[Reigned:1385 Till 1425]
- King Shukude (Son of Khondwane)
[Fathered:Prince Hlambangobubende & Prince Ncenjana & Prince Shiyama & Prince Niyamba & Prince Khoya]
(Born:1380-Died:1456)[Reigned:1425 Till 1456]
- King Hlambangobubende (Son of Shukude)
[Fathered:Prince Ziqelekazi]
(Born:1406-Died:1471)[Reigned:1456 Till 1471]
- King Ziqelekazi (Son of Hlambangobubende)
[Fathered:Prince Mhlamandane & Prince Ncamane]
(Born:1435-Died:1494)[Reigned:1471 Till 1494]
- King Mhlamandane (Son of Ziqelekazi)
[Fathered:Prince Thobe & Prince Hlombe]
(Born:1458-Died:1513)[Reigned:1494 Till 1513]
- King Thobe (Son of Mhlamandane)
[Fathered:Prince Msiza]
(Born:1482-Died:1539)[Reigned:1513 Till 1539]
- King Msiza (Son of Thobe)
[Fathered:Prince Ncindise]
(Born:1502-Died:1569)[Reigned:1539 Till 1569]
- King Ncindise (Son of Msiza)
[Fathered:Prince Cabe]
(Born:1527-Died:1591)[Reigned:1569 Till 1591]
- King Cabe (Son of Ncindise)
[Fathered:Prince Qhiya & Prince Gangatha & Prince Gqwarha & Prince Chaphathi & Prince Dwerha & Prince Njilo]
(Born:1553-Died:1619)[Reigned:1591 Till 1619]
- King Gangatha (Son of Cabe)
[Fathered:Prince Bhala & Prince Dhiba & Prince Hlabe & Prince Ncina & Prince Nyongeza]
(Born:1585-Died:1643)[Reigned:1619 Till 1643]
- King Bhala (Son of Gangatha)
[Fathered:Prince Chithwayo & Prince Khonjwayo & Prince Nyathi & Prince Ncoya & Prince Heleni & Prince Hola]
(Born:1610-Died:1664)[Reigned:1643 Till 1664]
- King Chithwayo (Son of Bhala)
[Fathered:Prince Ndayeni]
(Born:1643-Died:1696)[Reigned:1664 Till 1696]
- King Ndayeni (Son of Chithwayo)
[Fathered:Prince Thahle]
(Born:1669-Died:1721)[Reigned:1696 Till 1721]
- King Thahle (Son of Ndayeni)
[Fathered:Prince Nyawuza]
(Born:1692-Died:1755)[Reigned:1721 Till 1755]
- King Nyawuza (Son of Thahle)
[Fathered:Prince Ngqungqushe]
(Born:1720-Died:1782)[Reigned:1755 Till 1782]
- King Ngqungqushe (Son of Nyawuza)
[Fathered:Prince Faku & Prince Phakane & Prince Chingo & Prince Sitata & Prince Mtengwane & Prince Khanya]
(Born:1763-Died:1818)[Reigned:1782 Till 1818]
- King Faku (Son of Ngqungqushe)
[Fathered:Prince Ndamase & Prince Mqikela & Prince Bhekameva & Prince Mbangazitha]
(Born:1789-Died:1867) as Regent [Held-Power:1818 Till 1824] Then [Reigned:1824 Till 1867] as Monarchy
- King Mqikela (Son of Faku)
[Fathered:Prince Sigcawu & Prince Mhlanga & Prince Ngcwengo & Prince Dibaniso]
(Born:1831-Died:1887)[Reigned:1867 Till 1887]
- King Sigcawu (Son of Mqikela)
[Fathered:Prince Marhelane & Prince Mswakezi & Prince Mbangani & Prince Dumalisile]
(Born:1856-Died:1905)[Reigned:1887 Till 1905]
- Regency-King Mhlanga (Son of Mqikela)
[Fathered:??????????] (He was a Regent for his nephew Prince Marhelane Ka-Sigcawu who was still in high-school at time and underage to rule his people).
(Born:1863-Died:1917)[Held-Power:1905 till 1909]
- King Marhelane (Son of Sigcawu)
[Fathered:Prince Mandlonke & Prince Mandalenkosi & Prince Manzolwandle & Prince Dlangamandla]
(Born:1890-Died:1921)[Reigned:1909 Till 1921]
- Regency-King Mswakezi (Son of Sigcawu)
[Fathered:???????????] (he too was a regent for his nephew Prince Mandlonke Ka-Marhelane who was his late brother's Main-son because he was to young to rule his people).
(Born:1887-Died:1949)[Held-Power:1921 till 1934]
- King Mandlonke (Son of Marhelane)
[Fathered:he Never had children of his own] (He was the first to be king but because he died without Producing his own children so the royal family decided to give the throne to his twin brother who took over from him).
(Born:1909-Died:1937)[Reigned:1934 Till 1937]
- King Manzolwandle (Son of Marhelane)
[Fathered:Prince Mpondombini]
(Born:1913-Died:1978)[Reigned:1937 Till 1978]
- Chief Mandalenkosi (Son of Marhelane)
[Fathered:Prince Zwelidumile]
(Born:1909-Died:1970)[Ruled:1937 Till 1970]
- Chief Zwelidumile (Son of Mandalenkosi)
[Fathered: Prince Zanozuko]
(Born:1948-Died:1984)[Ruled:1970 Till 1984]
- King Mpondombini (Son of Manzolwandle)
[Fathered:Many daughters but no son's]
(Born:1942-Died:2013)[Reigned:1978 Till 2013]
- King Zanozuko (Son of Zwelidumile)
[Fathered:Prince Yolisa]
(Born:1974-Died:2022)[Reigned:2013 Till 2022]
- King Yolisa (Son of Zanozuko)
[Fathered:?????????????]
(Born:1997-Alive:Aging)[Reigning Since:2022 Till Present-Date]
(He is the current reigning monarch of Ama-Mpondo-people in South Africa today Since 2022 to Present-Day).
Mpondo clans and tributary clans
[edit]There are three types of clans you find in Mpondo-land (kwa-Mpondo/ema-Mpondweni) today. First, there clans that arise out of the many houses of the Kings listed in the section above is ( King Mpondo's descendants). Secondly, there are clans of the older Aba-Mbonambi Ma-Mbo Clan from which Mpondo himself was born out, therefore these are people of his ancestors. Thirdly, there are clans who have immigrated to Mpondo-land and now pay tribute to the Mpondo kingdom.
- From Sihula we have Imi-Qwane, Ama-Ntusi (The elder son called Mbangweni and the young brother called Gavu kaMbangweni)
- From Mthwa we have Imi-Thaw, Ama-Woshe, Ama-Ngcwangule, Ama-Gingqi, Ama-Khwalo, Ama-Beko
- From Mkhondwane we have Ama-Ntlane, Ama-Valela, Ama-Gcuda
- From Sukude we have Ama-Same, Ama-Ncenjane
- From Cabe we have Ama-Cabe, Ama-Tshomane, Ama-Dwerha, Ama-Qhiya, Ama-Njilo, Ama-Gqwarhu, Ama-Nqanda
- From Gangatha we have Ama-Gangatha, Imi-Capathi
- From Bhala we have Ama-Bhala, Ama-Chithwayo, Ama-Khonjwayo, Ama-Nyathi, Ama-Heleni, Ama-Ngcoya, Ama-Jola (not to be confused with Ama-Mpondomise clan)
- From Ndayini we have Ama-Ndayini
- From Thahle we have Ama-Thahle
- From Nyawuza we have Ama-Nyawuza, Ama-Faku, oNgqungqushe.
Some of the following clans were followers of Mpondo kings from the beginning, some only came later during the reign of Faku:[8][9]
- Ama-Yalo
- Ama-Mpisi
- Ama-Ngcikwa
- Ama-Khanyayo
- Imi-Zizi
- Ama-Ntshangase
- Ama-Khwetshube
- Ama-Ngutyana
- Ama-Ndunu
- Izi-langwe (lineage of the silangwe clan according to the oral history)
1960 revolts
[edit]Causes
[edit]There were varying reasons that led to the revolts notably the land rehabilitation programme, the Bantu Authorities System and the increase in taxes.
The land rehabilitation programme
[edit]The land rehabilitation programme was a system that entailed the colonisers keeping the fertile soils to themselves and allocating the less fertile lands to the local people.[10] The Mpondo people revolted against this.[citation needed]
The Bantu Authorities System
[edit]This system brought about tension between the people of Pondoland and their chiefs. The Bantu Authorities System created a pseudo sense of power as colonial authorities gave chiefs limited power, ensuring that administrative duties were still being assigned to the colonial government. This disrupted the system as people were used to being consulted at the Inkundla before decisions were made. Inkundla was when members of a community met together to discuss issues affecting the district/area and made decisions.[citation needed]
Series of events leading to the 1960 revolts
[edit]The first signs of revolt were apparent through local vigilante groups such as the Makhuluspani. The Makhuluspani was a group that was created in a bid to combat stock theft in the districts of Tsolo and Qumbu in the 1950s. It is reported that these groups targeted headmen and chiefs who were cooperating or suspected to be cooperating with the colonial government.[11] There were also conflicts around the Bizana area during that same year as the government intended to fence off a certain area on the coastal area to reserve the forests and coastal zones without having consulted the people of Mpondo-land. People were evicted out of their land, and at one stage during evictions police were attacked.[12]
In 1959, in the Bizana district, Saul Mabude who was the chairman of the district authority and advocate for the Bantu Authorities system was asked to meet with the people of that community. He was tasked with explaining the Bantu Authorities system to them, however he did not show up as he feared for his life. The consequence to his actions resulted in him having his house burnt and the police terrorizing the people in that area. This did not deter the Mpondo people from mobilising against the government, who made it clear to Chief Sigcawu, who was the King at the time that the Bantu system was not going to be enforced on their watch.[13]
In June 1960 a meeting was called at Ngquza Hill. These meetings had become the norm during the apartheid era around that area as people used them to educate each other on the events that were taking place, thus the meetings on the hill were not held secretly. The police were tipped about the meeting, who in turn upon their arrival fired on the people at the hill. This resulted in the arrest of 23 people and the death of 11 people.[12] In retaliation, there was an ambush on a police patrol in Flagstaff. These people were shot at by the police, resulting in the injury of two policemen and the arrest of one headman.[13]
In November 1960 in Flagstaff, a mass meeting was called at Ngqanduli. Chief Vukayibambe called the police and helped disperse the meeting. One of the protesters was killed, this resulting in Vukayibambe's kraal being set on fire and his death. All those who had an affiliation with the chief and supported him were killed, injured and their kraals set alight. The police were sent to defuse the situation.[13]
Stabilisation of the revolts
[edit]A commission of inquiry was held right after the massacre. The demands from the people of Pondoland entailed the Bantu Authorities, Bantu Education Acts being withdrawn, the relief from taxes.[13] Their demands were not met, and in retaliation the Pondo boycotted all white owned stores in Pondoland.[13]
By the end of November 1960, a state of emergency was declared in Pondoland, in Flagstaff, Bizana, Tabankulu, Lusikisiki and Mount Ayliff. No one could access those areas without a permit, and the west of Umtata was closed off. The revolts were shut down through heavy policing and raiding tax evaders. The Bantu Home Guard was also established by the chiefs in a bid to shut down the revolts, with the aid of the military force that was sent by the state in a bid to subjugate the areas in Pondoland where the revolts had occurred until 1963.[13]
In 1960, a total of 4,769 had been imprisoned during this period of the revolts from 1950 and 1960, and 2,067 brought to trial and it is reported that 30 people were sentenced to death during August and October in 1961.[12]
Arts and entertainment
[edit]The Mpondo people are one of the major tribes that produce and consumes the genre of music called Maskandi but the Mpondo people are unique in a performance of ukusina(Nguni dance) and their own traditional dance called "imfene" (baboon dance). This dance(imfene) is performed by young ones and adults of both sexes to the sounds of Maskandi music.
Mpondo Culture and Heritage Festival
[edit]
Mpondo Culture and Heritage Festival is celebrated annually by Mpondo to celebrate their culture and heritage. It is the biggest cultural event celebrated in the Kingdom attended by approximately over 20,000 people preceded by the Annual Mpondo Reed Dance. It is held in September of every year at Lwandlolubomvu Great Place, Ntabankulu; palace of the customary head Jongilanga Sigcau. Ntabankulu is the mountainous part of the Mpondo Kingdom surrounded by the great Mzimvubu River. Ntabankulu in Mpondo language means 'Big Mountains'. September is important in Mpondo history as it was originally the Mpondo new year in the ancient Mpondo calendars and also two of the Mpondo Kings King Mqikela and King Sigcau were born on this month. The Mpondo culture and Heritage Festival also celebrates the roles played by these icons, including the legendary kings Faku, Mqikela, Sigcawu, Marhelane amongst others. This events also seeks to promote cultural diversity through sharing of Mpondo culture and heritage with other cultures from South Africa, broader African continent and beyond the oceans. It attracts a lot of tourists, both local and international, and is one of the biggest events in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.
Lunar Calendar
[edit]According to the ancient Aba-Mbo people, including Mpondo September is the first month of the year. There are some Mpondo people who recognise the appearance of the Pleiades ("isilimela") to signal the beginning of the year,[8] but it is most likely that this interpretation was adopted from the sotho people. Mpondo calendar is as follows commencing with uMphanda the first month of the year according to the ancient Mpondo Calendar.
- u-Mphanda (September)
- u-Zibandlela (October)
- u-Lwezi (November)
- u-Ntsinga (December)
- u-Ntlolanja (January)
- u-Ndazosela (February)
- u-m'Basa (March)
- u-Mgudlula (April)
- u-Ntlangula (May)
- u-Ntulikazi (June)
- u-Ncwabakazi (July)
- u-Mfumfu (August)
Notable Mpondo leaders
[edit]- Gquma - queen of the Tshomane Mpondo
- Nkosi Ntsikayezwe Sigcau – ANC activist
- Stella Sigcau – former ANC MP
See also
[edit]- Botha Sigcau
- Tutor Nyangelizwe Vulindlela Ndamase
- Faku kaNgqungqushe
- Ngqungqushe kaNyawuza
- Ndamase
- Sigcau
- Isinuka Mud Caves and Sulphur Pools
- List of current constituent African monarchs
- Mpondoland
- Mpondomise people
- Xhosa clan names
References
[edit]- ^ Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
- ^ a b Diagram Group (2013). Encyclopedia of African Peoples. Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-135-96334-7.
- ^ Mpondo people, Encyclopædia Britannica (2007)
- ^ Mkhize, Siyabonga (2009). Uhlanga Lwas'eMbo. Sibiside Publishers. ISBN 978-0-620-43055-5.
- ^ a b Soga, John Henderson (1930). The South Eastern Bantu (Abe-Nguni, Aba-Mbo, Ama-Lala. Witwatersrand University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-06682-2.
- ^ Khumalo, Dumisani. "The Invasion of AmaMpondo". Document Analysis system.
- ^ Ciqala, Macko. "Mpondo". Analysis.
- ^ a b c d Ndamase, Victor Poto (1926). Ama-Mpondo: Ibali ne-ntlalo. Lovedale Institution Press.
- ^ a b Jackson, A. O. (1974). The Ethnic Composition of the Ciskei and Transkei: Ethnological Publications No. 53. ISBN 0 621 021032.
- ^ Murray, Colin; Williams, Gavin (1994). "Editorial: Land and Freedom in South Africa". Review of African Political Economy. 21 (61): 315–324. doi:10.1080/03056249408704062. JSTOR 4006143.
- ^ Pieterse.Traditionalists, traitors and sell-outs: the roles and motives of ‘ama-qaba’, ‘aba-ngcatshi’ and ‘aba-thengisi’ in the Mpondo-land Revolt of 1960 to 1961. Department of Historical and Heritage Studies.Faculty of Humanities University of Pretoria .2007.51
- ^ a b c Kepe and Ntsebeza. Rural Resistance in South Africa. The Mpondo Revolts after Fifty Years. Koninklikje Brill NV.2011.26.https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/31865/ASC-075287668-3033-01.pdf?sequence=2
- ^ a b c d e f SA History Online.http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pondoland-revolt-1950-1961.
