1 - Voir Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago : The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1968 ; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto-Negro New York, 1890- 1930, New York, Harper, 2e éd., 1971 ; Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1976 ; et David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto : Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1973. Sur la période antérieure, lire le classique de W. E. B. Dubois, The Philadelphia Negro : A Social Study, New York, Shocken Books, 1967, orig. 1899. Pour un panorama d'ensemble de l'urbanisation afro-américaine, on se reportera à l'excellente synthèse de Kenneth L. Kusmer, «The Black Urban Experience in American History» in Darlene Clark Hine, éd., The State of Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1986, p. 91-135.
2 - Nicolas Leman, The Promised Land : The Great Migration and How it Changed America, New York, Knopf, 1990; et Loïc J. D. Wacquant, ■■ Redrawing the Urban Color Line : The State of the Ghetto in the 1980s », in Craig J. Calhoun et George Ritzer, éd., Social Problems, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1992; p. 448-475.