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Sorbs (tribe)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the mediaeval tribe. For the modern people, see Sorbs.
Map of the Sorbian-Lusatian tribes between the 7th and 11th century, by Wilhelm Bogusławski, 1861
Sorbs and their sub-tribes, Luzici, Milceni and Daleminci, seen in the southwest corner of the early West Slavic tribal area, by W. Fix, 1869

The Sorbs, also known as Serbs or White Serbs in Serbian historiography, were an Early Slavic tribe settled between the Saale-Elbe valley and the Lusatian Neisse (in present-day Saxony and Thuringia). They were part of the Polabian Slavs and Wends group of Early Slavs. In the 7th century CE, the tribe joined Samo's Empire, and some Sorbs emigrated from their homeland (White Serbia) to Southeast Europe. The tribe is last mentioned in the late-10th century, but its descendants can be found among Germanized people of Saxony, among the Slavic ethnic group of the Sorbs in Lusatia, and among the Serbs of Southeastern Europe.

Etymology

[edit]
Main article: Names of the Serbs and Serbia

They are mentioned between the 6th and 10th century as Cervetiis (Servetiis), gentis (S)urbiorum, Suurbi, Sorabi, Soraborum, Sorabos, Surpe, Sorabici, Sorabiet, Sarbin, Swrbjn, Servians, Zribia, and Suurbelant.[1] It is generally considered that their ethnonym *Sŕbъ (plur. *Sŕby) originates from Proto-Slavic language with a appellative meaning of a "family kinship" and "alliance", while other argue a derivation from Iranian-Sarmatian language.[1][2][3][4]

History

[edit]

Origin

[edit]
See also: Leipzig group
Dervan's Sorbian province

According to the old theorization by Joachim Herrmann, the Serbian tribe characterized by Rüssen-type of Leipzig group pottery arrived from the Middle Danube in the beginning of the 7th century and settled between Saale and Elbe river, but only since the 10th century their ethnonym was transferred to the Luzici, Milceni and other tribes of Sukow-Dziedzice and Tornow group who supposedly were present from the late 5th and early 6th century (Tornow since 7th century, as was also argued that to the West were present some Slavs with Prague-Korchak culture).[5][6][7] Herrmann also considered that the Sorbs settled and influenced around Magdeburg, Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria,[8] and alongside them immigrated Croats and Bulgars from Middle Danube escaping the pressure of Pannonian Avars.[9][10] However, since the 1980s, Herrmann's theory about waves of several archaeological cultures carried by distinctive ethnic groups is outdated and rejected by archaeologists, historians and other scholars because it was found to be completely unfounded and based on wrong data and chronologies among others.[11][12][13][14][15] Pottery of similar quality to the Rüssen-type in the rest of Polabia appears only since the second half of the 8th century.[16] Dendrochronology also showed that the wooden building material was from the late 8th to the beginning of the 10th century, while the material from the 6th and 7th century is almost non-existent.[17] This is also doubting the accuracy of the historical sources and their interpretation.[17] Peter Heather, in conclusion, stated that it is an "old theory" with seriously erroneous dating of the ceramics and sites, which in reality date to the 8th and 9th century.[18] The archaeological data and historical sources indicate earliest Slavic migration along the Carpathians and the Alps since the late 6th century with Korchak-type material,[19][20] and "the Serbs, most likely, were already carriers of ceramics of the Prague-Korchak type".[21][22] Heinz Schuster-Šewc deemd as "unfounded" the idea that the Luzici and Milceni did not ethnically belong to the same group as the Sorbs living west of the Elbe river and adopted the Sorbian ethonym since the 10-11th century.[14]

According to some researchers the archaeological data cannot confirm the thesis about a single proto-linguistic group yet supports the claim about two separated ethno-cultural groups with different ancestries whose respective territories correspond to Tornow-type ceramics (Lower Sorbian language) and Leipzig-type ceramics (Upper Sorbian language).[5][23] Upper Sorbian is more similar to Czech, Slovak and Ukrainian, while Lower Sorbian to Lechitic dialects,[23] with Schuster-Šewc arguing a migration from northeastern Bohemia to Lusatia.[24][25] However, linguistic research does see a connection between Sorbian languages (specifically Upper Sorbian language[26]) and South Slavic languages,[27] particularly the Late Common Slavic *-nū->-nq- // -ny->-ni- verb suffix which is also present in Polabian language dialect, Cieszyn Silesian dialect, and Western South Slavic languages (most of Slovenian dialects and Western part of Serbo-Croatian dialects including Kajkavian, Čakavian, Western Štokavian) which could indicate a northward migration from the south or pointing to a single common area of Slavic pre-migratory period.[28][29][30][31] However, it could be also an in situ development and analogies unrelated to historical migrations.[32] Aleksandar Loma considered that the supposed South Slavic linguistic connection actually "implies that before the 7th century the ancestors of Sorbs came from the east of the Slavic territory to their later homeland, where they subsequently mingled with the West-Slavs. Thus, if the southern Serbs stem from the west and the western from the east, we have a good reason to assume existence of a former East-Slavic tribe under the same name", and that "any further refutation of their ethnogenetic connection by the diversity of their [Sorbian and Serbian] dialects becomes pointless".[33]

It is considered that the ancient homeland of the Sorbs probably was near other Slavs somewhere in Southeastern Poland and Western Ukraine, from where migrated westward along the Carpathians to Silesia, Bohemia and eventually Saxony.[34] The appearance of the Slavs in Polabia is usually interpreted as a migration with or without Avar influence (either independent arrival with or without Avar pressure, or under decision by the Avars as anti-Frankish border guards, or under patronage of the Franks as anti-Avar border guards in Thuringia).[35] However, as the Sorbs probably were present around Bohemia already by mid-6th century, it excludes their relation with first two Frankish-Avar conflicts (562, 566), and Avars in general, and supports the initiative of the Franks.[36]

The original settlement area of the tribe of Sorbs was between Saale and Elbe river valleys and the Ore Mountains, possibly also expanding to the Lower Havel river in the north, and from the Ilm and Saale in the southwest in Thuringia to the Gera river and city of Erfurt.[37] Based on historical and archaeological evidence, they most probably arrived there from North(-western) Bohemia being part of same ethnocultural area alongisde Bohemian tribes of Pšované, Litoměřici, Lemuzi and Děčané.[38] According to a fringe theory their area of settlement possibly also included part of Chebsko (the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic),[39][40] but it is a baseless claim without a source, and scholars, including E. Simek proved only Czechs lived there.[40] Henryk Łowmiański concluded that there's no mention of Sorbs/Serbs living in the territory of Bohemia in Czech and German historical sources.[40] The area of White Serbs in the Saale-Elbe valley had flat-graves with cremations in urns, while the area of Upper Lusatia and partly Lower Lusatia also had kurgan cremation burials, which was more common in neighboring area of Northeastern Bohemia and Lower Silesia (inhabited by White Croats and Polish tribes), assumed by Rostyslav Vatseba as an indication of a Lechitic-Croatian contact zone in the eastern part of Saxony.[25][41][42]

It is often considered that the earliest mention of the Sorbs is from the 6th century or earlier by Vibius Sequester,[43] who recorded Cervetiis (Servetiis) living on the other part of the river Elbe which divided them from the Suevi (Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cerveciis dividiit).[1][44][45][39][46][47][48][49] According to one theory, the original Serbs were not of Slavic origin and such an early mention is related to possible westward migration of a Sarmatian tribe of Serboi with the Huns who later as an elite subjugated Slavic population giving it their name,[50][51][52][53] and that those who remained in the Caucasus region, were mentioned by Constantine VII in De Ceremoniis as Sarban (Serbs) and Krevatades (Croats).[54][55] According to Lubor Niederle, that Serbian district in Polabia was located somewhere between Magdeburg and Lusatia, and was later mentioned by the Ottonians as Ciervisti, Zerbisti, and Kirvisti.[56]

7th century

[edit]

According to the Chronicle of Fredegar, the Surbi lived in the Saale-Elbe valley, having settled in the Thuringian part of Francia at least since the second-half of the 6th century and were vassals of Merovingian dynasty.[39][57][58] The Saale-Elbe line marked the approximate limit of Slavic westward migration.[59] It is described that they since long time ago were "attached" or "belonged" to the Frankish kingdom, which would be possible at the latest in the interval of Theudebert II's of Austrasia (595–612), probably helping the Franks in the conquest of Thuringia and later siding with Theudebert II during princely rebellion of Theuderic II.[60]

Fredegar recounts that under the leadership of dux (duke) Dervan (Dervanus dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum), they joined the Slavic tribal union of Samo, after Samo's decisive victory against Frankish King Dagobert I in 631.[57][58] Afterwards, these Slavic tribes continuously raided Thuringia.[57] The fate of the tribes during and Samo's death and dissolution of the union in 658 is undetermined, but it is considered that subsequently returned to Frankish vassalage,[61] under semi-independent Radulf, King of Thuringia (632–642) until around 700 AD.[62]

Emigration to Southeastern Europe

[edit]
See also: White Serbia and Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe
Slavic and Serbian migrations to the Balkans.

According to 10th-century source De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII, writing on the Serbs and their lands previously dwelt in, they lived "since the beginning" in the region called by them as Boiki (Bohemia; a mistake by Constantine VII which should be understood as "near" instead of "in"[40]) which was a neighbor to Francia, and when two brothers succeeded their father, one of them migrated with half of the people from White Serbia to the Balkans during the rule of Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius (610–641) in the first half of the 7th century.[63][64] According to some scholars, the White Serbian Unknown Archon who led them to the Balkans was most likely a son, brother or other relative of Dervan.[65][66][67][68]

This account is related to Fredegar's about Samo as the revolt in the Balkans against the Avars after the Siege of Constantinople (626) coincides with the period of Heraclius, when Byzantine Empire was also in crisis and likely used the Slavs against the Avars in the Western frontier of the Empire.[69][70] Serbs, and Croats, could have come into contact with Heraclius at the time, and Heraclius knew about those faraway lands, because Heraclius made a treaty in 629 with king Dagobert I of the Franks against the Avars.[69][71][72] Francis Dvornik considered that the Serbian migration was caused by the Frankish pressure and conquest of Thuringia, and the Byzantine alliance against the Avars.[73][71] They can be seen as "typical foederati of the empire".[72] The migration probably temporarily diminished Serbian and Slavic power in Polabia.[74]

Serbs who emigrated to the Southeastern Europe arrived as a military and ruling elite, that could not influence "racial and linguistic evolution" of other South Slavs and natives, imposing only their name in a similar fashion as did the Bulgars with the Bulgarians.[75][76] Dvornik additionally argued that they helped the Croats fighting the Avars.[77][76] Recent scholars also consider that they arrived as a small military elite which managed to organize other already settled and more numerous Slavs,[78] but that the Serbs did not fight the Avars as there's no evidence and mention of it in historical sources.[79][65]

8th century

[edit]

In 782, the Sorbs, inhabiting the region between the Elbe and Saale, plundered Thuringia and Saxony.[80] Charlemagne sent Adalgis, Worad and Geilo into Saxony, aimed at attacking the Sorbs, however, they met with rebel Saxons who destroyed them.[81]

In 789, Charlemagne launched a campaign against the Wiltzi; after reaching the Elbe, he went further and successfully "subjected the Slavs".[82][83] His army also included the Sorbs and Obotrites led by chieftain Witzan.[82][83] The army reached Dragovit of the Wiltzi, who surrendered, followed by other Slavic magnates and chieftains who submitted to Charlemagne.[83]

9th century

[edit]
See also: Sorbian March
Map of the Sorbian March, by Włodzimierz Dzwonkowski, 1918

Charles the Younger launched a campaign against the Slavs in Bohemia in 805, killing their dux, Lecho, and then proceeded crossing the Saale with his army and killed rex (king) Melito (or "Miliduoch") of the Sorabi or Siurbis who "live on the River Elbe" in 806.[84][85][86][87] The region was laid to waste, upon which the other Slavic chieftains submitted and gave hostages.[88][89] Franks constructed two castles, one on each river.[84] Ten years later, in 816 the Sorbs rebelled, but their disobedience was suppressed after Saxons and East Franks campaign conquering their cities, and renewing their oaths of submission.[90][87][91] In 822, the Sorbs sent an embassy with gifts alongside other Slavs (Obodrites, Wilzi, Bohemians, Moravians, Praedenecenti as well as Pannonian Avars) to a Louis the Pious's general assembly at Frankfurt.[92]

In May 826, at a meeting at Ingelheim, Cedrag of the Obotrites and Tunglo "one of the magnates" of the Sorbs were accused of malpractices; they were ordered to appear in October, and Tunglo surrendered his son as hostage to be allowed to return home.[93][74][94] The Franks had, sometime before the 830s, established the Sorbian March, comprising eastern Thuringia, in easternmost East Francia.

In 839, the Saxons fought "the Sorabos, called Colodici" at Kesigesburch and won the battle, managing to kill their king Cimusclo (or "Czimislav"), with Kesigesburch and eleven forts being captured.[87][95] The Sorbs were forced to pay tribute and forfeited territory to the Franks.[95] The Sorbian tribe of Colodici was furthermore mentioned in 973 (Coledizi pagus, Cholidici), in 975 (Colidiki), and 1015 (Colidici locus).[96] Besides Colodici other tribes which scholars consider part of the core Sorbian tribes were Glomacze-Daleminzi, Chutici-Chudzicy, Citici-Żytyce, Neletici-Nieletycy, Siusler-Susłowie among others.[5][97][98]

According to the Annales Fuldenses, in 849 Thachulf, Duke of Thuringia held also the title "dux of the Sorbian March",[99] In 851, the Sorbs attacked and raided Frankish border, provoking Louis the German's invasion which "oppressed them severely. He tamed them, after they had lost their harvests and so the hope of food".[100] In August 856 the Sorbian duces joined king Louis's army in his successful attack on Daleminzi and Duchy of Bohemia.[101][102] In 857, the brother of Sclavitag/Slavitach son of rebellious Wiztrach dux of Bohemians, found a refuge at the court of Zistibor of Sorbs before was made new dux of Bohemians by the Franks.[103][102] For summer 858, Thachulf was ordered to attack the Sorbs, as one of three armies dealing with different Slavic frontiers.[104] It is unclear whether by then, or later in the year, Sorbs killed their dux Zistibor.[105] In 869, Sorbs (as a tribe, not confederation[106]) and Siusli (another Sorbic tribe[106]) "joined with the Bohemians and the other peoples of the region and crossed the old Thuringian border: they laid many places waste and killed some who rashly came together to attack them".[106] In August of the same year, many Sorbs and Bohemian mercenaries recruited by the Sorbs, were killed and forced to return home or surrender by Louis the Younger, Thuringian and Saxon forces.[107] After death of Thachulf in August 873, the Sorbs and Siusli rebelled again, but Liutbert (archbishop of Mainz) and new Sorbian March dux Radulf II in January 874 "by pillaging and burning crushed their insolence without battle and reduced them to their former servility".[108] After the Viking raids in the Rhineland against the Saxons in 880, joint forces of the Sorbs, Daleminzi, Bohemians and other near tribes attacked the Slavs around Saale river "faithful to the Thuringians with plunder and burning. Count Poppo, dux of the Sorbian march, came against them with the Thuringians, and with God's help so defeated them that not one out of a great multitude remained".[109] The Sorbs in Saxony probably were the Slavs who successfully repelled and killed Arn (bishop of Würzburg) in 892.[110][111]

It is considered that somewhere in the second-half of the 9th century, Svatopluk I of Moravia (r. 871–894) may have incorporated the Sorbs into Great Moravia,[59][112] or spread Moravian influence in the region,[102] because Annales Fuldenses mentions an oath of fidelity mission with gifts by Sorbs in Salz and then Bohemians in Regensburg to king Arnulf in 895/897 (with Bohemians calling the Moravians as "enemies" and "opressors"[112]),[112][102][113] while Thietmar of Merseburg in his Chronicon Thietmari speaking about Thuringia wrote that "in the reign of the Duke Svatopluk we were ruled by Bohemian princes. Our ancestors paid him an annual tribute and he had bishops in his country, then called Marierun [Moravia]".[102]

The mid-9th century Bavarian Geographer mentioned the Surbi having 50 civitates (Iuxta illos est regio, que vocatur Surbi, in qua regione plures sunt, que habent civitates L).[114][1] Alfred the Great in his Geography of Europe (888–893) relying on Orosius, recorded that "north of the Dalamensians are the Surpe/Servians".[115][116]

10th century

[edit]
See also: Siege of Gana and Margravate of Meissen

The Arab historians and geographers Al-Masudi and Al-Bakri (10th and 11th century) writing on the Saqaliba mentioned the Sarbin or Sernin living between the Germans and the Moravians, a "Slavic people much feared for reasons that it would take too long to explain and whose deeds would need much too detailed an account. They have no particular religious affiliation". They, like other Slavs, "have the custom of burning themselves alive when a king or chieftain dies. They also immolate his horses".[117][118][119][120] In the Hebrew book Josippon (10th century) are listed four Slavic ethnic names from Venice to Saxony; Mwr.wh (Moravians), Krw.tj (Croats), Swrbjn (Sorbs), Lwcnj (Lučané or Lusatians).[40]

Henry the Fowler had subjected the Stodorani in 928, and in the following year imposed overlordship on the Obotrites and Veletians, and strengthened the grip on the Sorbs and Glomacze.[121] Between 932 and 963 the Sorbs lost their independence, pressured by Gero, becoming part of Marca Geronis.[122][123] Since the 940s were built Burgwards in the territory of the Sorbs,[124] and the Margravate of Meissen and March of Lusatia were established in 965,[125] remaining part of the Holy Roman Empire, with Otto I founding many Slavic bishoprics (including Bishopric of Merseburg[126]).[127] Bishop Boso of St. Emmeram (d. 970), a Slav-speaker, had considerable success in Christianizing the Sorbs.[128] Although by 994 some Slavic people managed to get independence, only Sorbs remained under Saxon control.[129]

Aftermath

[edit]
Main article: Sorbs

Cosmas of Prague in his 12th century Chronica Boemorum, speaking about mythical history of Czechs, mentions certain tutor Duringo of Sribia genere and as scelestus Zribin.[130][131] The chronicle, dealing with real historical events, mentions land of Serbia (Zribiam 1040, 1087, 1088, 1095, 1109, and Sribiae 1113), mainly in regard of being crossed by Saxons to attack Bohemia, or local castles being attacked by Bohemia, from there moved regional princes to Poland and back, or as a land where were banished people from Bohemia.[131] In a 1140 royal charter to the lands east of river Saale were referred as Zurba.[132]

Since then the Sorbian tribes mostly disappeared from the political scene. From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture east of Elbe River developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. The Slavs were allowed to live mainly in the periphery of the cities, and the military-administrative as well as religious authority was in the hands of the Germans. Despite the long process of Germanization, part of the Slavs living in Lusatia preserved their identity and language until now, and in the early 20th century there lived some 150 thousand Lusatian Sorbs.[5]

Organization

[edit]

According to Rostyslav Vatseba, "between the Elbe and Saale rivers the heterachical dryht-type state existed during the reign of Miliduch (before 806). The local society of the White Serbs was of clan character, which indicates the beginnings of state formation. The Sorbian 'civitates' are equal to simple chiefdoms, the particular clan regions correspond with complex chiefdoms. The high king ('rex supérbus') had only hegemonic authority over the heads of the clan regions ('ceteri reges'). Later on in the 9th and early 10th century the political unity of the Sorbi region was lost, despite a presumably more hierarchical mode of government in the Colodici's principality of Czimislav (830s). The author suggests that Colodici's 'castellа' served as places of the high prince's dryht members ('witsessen') residence, providing the ability to control the neighbouring clans. Such a system presumably could have persisted to the times of Čestibor".[133] The peasants were called smerdi, while two other classes were vitaz/vitiezi and zhupans.[134][135]

Foreign perception

[edit]

The 10th-century Widukind of Corvey in his The Deeds of the Saxons wrote that the "heathens are bad", but their land is rich for cultivation and harvest.[123] Thietmar of Merseburg in the early 11th century regarded them as pagans.[136] The 12th-century Helmond described the Sorbs of having a "generally innate cruelty", that the pagan people would "tear out the entrails of captured Christians and then wrap them around a stake", while an clergyman stated that the Sorbs and Elbe Slavs are "men without mercy ... rob, murder and kill many with selected tortures".[123]

Rulers

[edit]
Monarch Reign
Dervan c. 615 – 636
Miliduch c. 790 – 806
Tunglo c. 826
Czimislav c. 830 – 840
Čestibor c. 840 – 859
Slavibor c. 859 – 894
Other notable people

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Łuczyński, Michal (2017). ""Geograf Bawarski" — nowe odczytania" ["Bavarian Geographer" — New readings]. Polonica (in Polish). XXXVII (37): 71. doi:10.17651/POLON.37.9. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  2. ^ Rudnicki, Mikołaj (1959). Prasłowiańszczyzna, Lechia-Polska (in Polish). Państwowe wydawn. naukowe, Oddzia ︢w Poznaniu. p. 182.
  3. ^ Pohl, Heinz-Dieter (1970). "Die slawischen Sprachen in Jugoslawien" [The Slavic languages in Yugoslavia]. Der Donauraum (in German). 15 (1–2): 72. doi:10.7767/dnrm.1970.15.12.63. S2CID 183316961. Srbin, Plural Srbi: „Serbe", wird zum urslawischen *sirbŭ „Genosse" gestellt und ist somit slawischen Ursprungs41. Hrvat „Kroate", ist iranischer Herkunft, über urslawisches *chŭrvatŭ aus altiranischem *(fšu-)haurvatā, „Viehhüter"42.
  4. ^ Popowska-Taborska, Hanna (1993). "Ślady etnonimów słowiańskich z elementem obcym w nazewnictwie polskim". Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Linguistica (in Polish). 27: 225–230. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  5. ^ a b c d Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevich (2013) [1995]. Славяне в раннем Средневековье [Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages)]. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. pp. 191–205, 458–466. ISBN 978-86-6263-026-1.
  6. ^ Brather 2004, pp. 316–326.
  7. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409.
  8. ^ Herrmann 1985, pp. 9, 26–27, 32.
  9. ^ Herrmann 1985, pp. 27.
  10. ^ Vatseba 2018b, p. 385.
  11. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 65, 89, 277–278, 280.
  12. ^ Brather, 2004, p. 316–326; 2008, pp. 47–48, 56–58; 2011, p. 455; 2020, p. 219
  13. ^ Roslund 2007, pp. 190.
  14. ^ a b Schuster-Šewc, Heinz. "Порекло и историја етнонима Serb "Лужички Србин"" [Origin and history of the ethnonym Serb "Lusatian Serb"]. rastko.rs (in Serbian). Translated by Petrović, Tanja. Пројекат Растко - Будишин. Облик прихваћен у данашњем говорном немачком језику са вокалом о- (такође и старија форма са -у), непознат је лужичкосрпском језику у Горњој и Доњој Лужици, а према изворима био је ограничен само на западни део старолужичког, западно од реке Mulde и Saale. Одавде је овај облик доспео у средњи век и у латинске и немачке хронике, а касније је одатле пренесен на источније насељена старолужичка племена (Glomaci, Nisani, Milzani), остајући међутим и даље ограничен само на изворе на немачком и латинском језику ... Узрок томе свакако лежи у опасности од мешања са именом јужнословенских Срба. Неосновано је у сваком случају мишљење које заступају неки историчари и археолози, према коме источни Лужичани и Милчани првобитно уопште етнички нису припадали истој групи са Лужичким Србима насељеним западно од Елбе, и према коме је етноним Serb тек касније (од 10/11. века) пренесен и на њих.
  15. ^ Vatseba 2018b, pp. 384–386.
  16. ^ Vatseba 2018b, pp. 386.
  17. ^ a b Pech 2015, pp. 124–125.
  18. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409–410:The new chronologies have also put paid to older theories that an initial Slavic penetration into the Elbe region in the later fifth or sixth centuries was followed by a second wave of migration in the seventh. This hypothesis had in mind a potential parallel with the Serbs and Croats and the Balkans. It was based, however, on the appearance of brand-new types of pottery in the Elbe region, which were finished on a slow wheel rather than entirely hand-formed. The geographical spread of the subtypes of this pottery broadly coincides with the main tribal confederations known from the Carolingian and Ottonian eras (Map 18): the Wilzi (Feldberg pottery), the Lausitzi (Tornow pottery) and the Sorbs (Leipzig pottery). It used therefore to be thought that the appearance of the new pottery types marked the arrival in the region of these tribal groups. Dendrochronology has shown, however, that the sites containing these wheel-turned pottery types date not from the late sixth and the seventh century, but from the later eighth and ninth. By this date, Carolingian narrative coverage of the region is more than full enough to rule out the possibility of any further large-scale migration. The new pottery types therefore represent the spread of new ceramic technologies among Slavs already indigenous to the Elbe region. The later dating also makes much better sense of the fact that some of the pottery resembles eighth century Carolingian ceramics, by which they were clearly influenced
  19. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 408–410.
  20. ^ Michel Kazanski (2020). "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations". Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online. BRILL, pp. 15–16
  21. ^ Vatseba 2018b, pp. 386, 389.
  22. ^ Vatseba 2022, p. 66.
  23. ^ a b Vatseba 2018b, p. 387.
  24. ^ Vatseba 2018b, p. 389.
  25. ^ a b Vatseba 2018d, p. 29.
  26. ^ Schuster-Šewc, Heinz (2013). "Das Sorbische – Genese und sprachlicher Status" [The Sorbian Language – its Origins and Linguistic Status]. Lětopis (in German) (2): 86–94.
  27. ^ Sedov 2013, pp. 199, 202.
  28. ^ Andersen 1999, p. 50–59, 62.
  29. ^ Andersen 2020, pp. 27–29.
  30. ^ Andersen 2023, p. 78.
  31. ^ Schallert 2024, p. 603–604.
  32. ^ Andersen 2020, p. 29.
  33. ^ Loma 1993, pp. 113, 125–126.
  34. ^ Vatseba 2022, pp. 55–56.
  35. ^ Vatseba 2022, pp. 45–47, 52–53.
  36. ^ Vatseba 2022, p. 57–60.
  37. ^ Vatseba 2022, p. 44.
  38. ^ Vatseba 2022, p. 54.
  39. ^ a b c Simek, Emanuel (1955). Chebsko V Staré Dobe: Dnesní Nejzápadnejsi Slovanské Území (in Czech). Vydává Masarykova Universita v Brne. pp. 47, 269, 271, 274. O Srbech máme zachován první historický záznam ze VI. století u Vibia Sequestra, který praví, že Labe dělí v GermaniinSrby od Suevů65. Tím ovšem nemusí být řečeno, že v končinách severně od českých hor nemohli býti Srbové již i za Labem (západně od Labe), neboť nevíme, koho Vibius Sequester svými Suevy mínil. Ať již tomu bylo jakkoli, víme bezpečně ze zpráv kroniky Fredegarovy, že Srbové měli celou oblast mezi Labem a Sálou osídlenu již delší dobu před založením říše Samovy66, tedy nejméně již v druhé polovici VI. století67. Jejich kníže Drevan se osvobodil od nadvlády francké a připojil se někdy kolem roku 630 se svou državou k říši Samově68. V následujících letech podnikali Srbové opětovně vpády přes Sálu do Durinska 69... 67 Schwarz, ON 48, dospěl k závěru, že se země mezi Labem a Sálou stala srbskou asi r. 595 a kolem roku 600 že bylo slovanské stěhování do končin západně od Labe určitě již skončeno; R. Fischer, GSl V. 58, Heimatbildung XVIII. 298, ON Falk. 59, NK 69 datuje příchod Slovanů na Chebsko do druhé polovice VI. století, G. Fischer(ová), Flurnamen 218, do VI. století. Chebský historik Sieg1 dospěl v posledním svém souhrnném díle o dějinách Chebska Eger u. Egerland 4 k závěru, že Slované (myslil na Srby) přišli do Chebska již kolem roku 490, tedy před koncem V. století.
  40. ^ a b c d e Łowmiański, Henryk (2004) [1964]. Nosić, Milan (ed.). Hrvatska pradomovina (Chorwacja Nadwiślańska in Początki Polski) [Croatian ancient homeland] (in Croatian). Translated by Kryżan-Stanojević, Barbara. Maveda. pp. 76–77, 84–86. OCLC 831099194.
  41. ^ Vatseba 2018b, pp. 383, 386–387, 389.
  42. ^ Vatseba 2019, p. 127.
  43. ^ Dvornik 1956, pp. 32–33.
  44. ^ Fischer, Adam (1932). Etnografja Słowiańska: Łużyczanie (in Polish). Ksia̧żnica-Atlas. p. 46. Najdawniejszą wzmiankę o plemionach łużyckich mamy u Wibia Sequestra (VI w.), że „Albis Suevos a Cervetiis dividit". Następnie wiemy, że w latach 623–631 istniało Księstwo łużyckie nad Salą, a wedle Fredegara...
  45. ^ Małowist, Marian (1954). Materiały źródłowe do historii Polski epoki feudalnej (in Polish). Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. p. 47. Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cervetiis dividit. (Rzeka) Łaba oddziela Swewów1 od Serbów... Swewowie oznaczają tu znany lud germański, który w początkach n . e . mieszkał nad Łabą, a następnie...
  46. ^ Sułowski, Zygmunt (1961). "Migracja Słowian na zachód w pierwszym tysiącleciu n. e." Roczniki Historyczne (in Polish). 27: 50–52. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  47. ^ Tyszkiewicz, Lech A. (1990). Słowianie w historiografii antycznej do połowy VI wieku (in Polish). Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. p. 124. ISBN 978-83-229-0421-3. ...Germaniae Suevos a Cervetiis dividit mergitur in oceanum". Według Szafarzyka, który odrzucił emendację Oberlina Cervetiis na Cheruscis, zagadkowy lud Cervetti to nikt inny, jak tylko Serbowie połabscy.
  48. ^ Dulinicz, Marek (2001). Kształtowanie się Słowiańszczyzny Północno-Zachodniej: studium archeologiczne (in Polish). Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk. p. 17. ISBN 978-83-85463-89-4.
  49. ^ Moczulski, Leszek (2007). Narodziny Międzymorza: ukształtowanie ojczyzn, powstanie państw oraz układy geopolityczne wschodniej części Europy w późnej starożytności i we wczesnym średniowieczu (in Polish). Bellona. pp. 335–336. Tak jest ze wzmianką Vibiusa Sequestra, pisarza z przełomu IV—V w., którą niektórzy badacze uznali za najwcześniejszą informację o Słowianach na Polabiu: Albis Germaniae Suevon a Cervetiis dividit (Vibii Sequestris, De fluminibus, fontibus, lacubus, memoribus, paludibus, montibus, gentibus, per litteras, wyd. Al. Riese, Geographi latini minores, Heilbronn 1878). Jeśli początek nazwy Cerve-tiis odpowiadał Serbe — chodziło o Serbów, jeśli Cherue — byli to Cheruskowie, choć nie można wykluczyć, że pod tą nazwą kryje się jeszcze inny lud (por. G. Labuda, Fragmenty dziejów Słowiańszczyzny Zachodniej, t. 1, Poznań 1960, s. 91; H. Lowmiański, Początki Polski..., t. II, Warszawa 1964, s. 296; J. Strzelczyk, Vibius Sequester [w:] Slownik Starożytności Słowiańskich, t. VI, Wroclaw 1977, s. 414). Pierwsza ewentualność sygeruje, że zachodnia eks-pansja Słowian rozpoczęta się kilka pokoleń wcześniej niż się obecnie przypuszcza, druga —że rozgraniczenie pomiędzy Cheruskami a Swebami (Gotonami przez Labę względnie Semnonami przez Soławę) uksztaltowało się — być może po klęsce Marboda — dalej na południowy wschód, niżby wynikało z Germanii Tacyta (patrz wyżej). Tyle tylko, że nie będzie to sytuacja z IV w. Istnienie styku serbsko-turyńskiego w początkach VII w. potwierdza Kronika Fredegara (Chronicarum quae dicuntw; Fredegari scholastici, wyd. B., Krusch, Monu-menta Gennaniae Bisiorka, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, t. II, Hannover 1888, s. 130); bylby on jednak późniejszy niż styk Franków ze Slowianami (Sldawami, Winklami) w Alpach i na osi Dunaju. Tyle tylko, te o takim styku możemy mówić dopiero w końcu VI w.
  50. ^ Dvornik 1949, p. 273–275, 285.
  51. ^ Dvornik 1956, pp. 26–28.
  52. ^ Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Thames and Hudson. pp. 189–190. ISBN 9780500020715.
  53. ^ Loma 1993, p. 119–122.
  54. ^ Dvornik 1956, pp. 27–28.
  55. ^ Loma 1993, pp. 122, 126.
  56. ^ Fomina, Z.Ye. (2016). "Славянская топонимия в современной Германии в лингвокультуроло-гическоми лингво-историческом аспек" [Slavonic Toponymy in Linguoculturological and Linguo-historical Aspects in Germany]. Современные лингвистические и методико-дидактические исследования (in Russian). 1 (12): 30. Retrieved 4 August 2020. Как следует из многотомного издания „Славянские древности" (1953) известного чешского ученого Любора Нидерле, первым историческим известием о славянах на Эльбе является запись Вибия Секвестра «De fluminibus» (VI век), в которой об Эльбе говорится: «Albis Suevos a Cervetiis dividit». Cervetii означает здесь наименованиесербскогоокруга (pagus) на правом берегу Эльбы, между Магдебургом и Лужицами, который в позднейших грамотах Оттона I, Оттона II и Генриха II упоминается под термином Ciervisti, Zerbisti, Kirvisti, нынешний Цербст[8]. В тот период, как пишет Любор Нидерле, а именно в 782 году, началось большое, имевшее мировое значение, наступление германцев против сла-вян. ПерейдяЭльбу, славяне представляли большую опасность для империи Карла Вели-кого. Для того, чтобы создать какой-то порядок на востоке, Карл Великий в 805 году соз-дал так называемый limes Sorabicus, который должен был стать границей экономических (торговых) связеймежду германцами и славянами[8].
  57. ^ a b c Sigfried J. de Laet; Joachim Herrmann (1 January 1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. pp. 282–284. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
  58. ^ a b Gerald Stone (2015). Slav Outposts in Central European History: The Wends, Sorbs and Kashubs. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4725-9211-8.
  59. ^ a b Vlasto 1970, p. 142.
  60. ^ Vatseba 2022, pp. 59, 61, 67–68.
  61. ^ Saskia Pronk-Tiethoff (2013). The Germanic loanwords in Proto-Slavic. Rodopi. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-94-012-0984-7.
  62. ^ Vatseba 2022, p. 65.
  63. ^ Živković, Tibor (2002). Јужни Словени под византијском влашћу (600-1025). Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. p. 198. ISBN 9788677430276.
  64. ^ Živković, Tibor (2012). De conversione Croatorum et Serborum: A Lost Source. Belgrade: The Institute of History. pp. 152–185.
  65. ^ a b Kardaras, Georgios (2018). Florin Curta; Dušan Zupka (eds.). Byzantium and the Avars, 6th-9th Century AD: political, diplomatic and cultural relations. BRILL. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-90-04-38226-8. Contrary to the story of the Croats, there is no mention of a clash between Serbs and Avars, nor any separate, conflicting traditions... The assumption of Francis Dvornik, that the Serbs helped the Croats in their war against the Avars, should be ruled out, as Porphyrogenitus makes no mention of any clash between Serbs and Avars.
  66. ^ Sava S. Vujić, Bogdan M. Basarić (1998). Severni Srbi (ne)zaboravljeni narod. Beograd. p. 40.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  67. ^ Miloš S. Milojević (1872). Odlomci Istorije Srba i srpskih jugoslavenskih zemalja u Turskoj i Austriji. U državnoj štampariji. p. 1.
  68. ^ Relja Novaković (1977). Odakle su Sebl dos̆il na Balkansko poluostrvo. Istorijski institut. p. 337.
  69. ^ a b Dvornik 1949, pp. 286–287.
  70. ^ Vatseba 2022, pp. 64–65.
  71. ^ a b Dvornik 1956, p. 62.
  72. ^ a b Vatseba 2022, p. 62.
  73. ^ Dvornik 1949, p. 287.
  74. ^ a b Dvornik 1949, p. 291.
  75. ^ Dvornik 1949, pp. 275–276, 287, 291.
  76. ^ a b Dvornik 1956, p. 63.
  77. ^ Dvornik 1949, pp. 269, 287.
  78. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 404–408, 424–425, 444.
  79. ^ Fine 1991, p. 37, 57:At the same time the Serbs arrived, and though they did not actually battle the Avars, they did assert their authority over some Slavs who had been under Avar suzerainty... Constantine makes no mention of Serbs fighting the Avars and there is no evidence that the Serbs did fight them... Serbs seem to have been relatively few in number, but as warrior horsemen fighting against disunited small tribal groups of Slavs on foot, they were greatly superior militarily.
  80. ^ Verbruggen 1997, p. 21.
  81. ^ Jim Bradbury (2 August 2004). The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. Routledge. pp. 118–. ISBN 978-1-134-59847-2.
  82. ^ a b Scholz & Rogers 1970, p. 68.
  83. ^ a b c Leif Inge Ree Petersen (1 August 2013). Siege Warfare and Military Organization in the Successor States (400-800 AD): Byzantium, the West and Islam. BRILL. pp. 749–750. ISBN 978-90-04-25446-6.
  84. ^ a b Scholz & Rogers 1970, p. 85.
  85. ^ Vickers, Robert H. (1894). History of Bohemia. Chicago: C. H. Sergel Company. p. 48.
  86. ^ Gerard Labuda (2002). Fragmenty dziejów Słowiańszczyzny zachodniej. PTPN. ISBN 978-83-7063-337-0. 806: „Et inde post non multos dies [imperator] Aquasgrani veniens Karlum filium suum in terram Sclavorum, qui dicuntur Sorabi, qui sedent super Albim fluvium, cum exercitu misit; in qua expeditione Miliduoch Sclavorum dux interf ectus
  87. ^ a b c Henryk Łowmiański, O identyfikacji nazw Geografa bawarskiego, Studia Źródłoznawcze, t. III: 1958, s. 1–22; reed: w: Studia nad dziejami Słowiańszczyzny, Polski i Rusi w wiekach średnich, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, Poznań 1986, s. 151–181, ISSN 0554-8217
  88. ^ Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 9, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization), 1880, p. 224
  89. ^ Verbruggen 1997, pp. 314–315.
  90. ^ Scholz & Rogers 1970, p. 100.
  91. ^ Bury 2011, p. 900.
  92. ^ Scholz & Rogers 1970, p. 111.
  93. ^ Scholz & Rogers 1970, p. 119–120.
  94. ^ Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1880. p. 224.
  95. ^ a b Janet Laughland Nelson (1 January 1991). The Annals of St-Bertin. Manchester University Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-7190-3425-1.
  96. ^ Šafárik, Pavel Jozef (1837). Slowanské starožitnosti (in Slovak). Tiskem I. Spurného. p. 912.
  97. ^ Herrmann 1985, pp. 9.
  98. ^ Vatseba 2018b, pp. 389–390.
  99. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 29.
  100. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 32.
  101. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 38.
  102. ^ a b c d e Dvornik 1949, pp. 292.
  103. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 39.
  104. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 41.
  105. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 43.
  106. ^ a b c Reuter 1992, p. 59.
  107. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 60.
  108. ^ Reuter 1992, p. 73.
  109. ^ Reuter 1992, pp. 88–89.
  110. ^ Reuter 1992, pp. 124.
  111. ^ Reuter 2014, p. 106.
  112. ^ a b c Reuter 1992, p. 137.
  113. ^ Dvornik 1956, p. 104.
  114. ^ Pierre Riche (1 January 1993). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 110–. ISBN 0-8122-1342-4.
  115. ^ Ingram, James (1807). An Inaugural Lecture on the Utility of Anglo-Saxon Literatures to which is Added the Geography of Europe by King Alfred, Including His Account of the Discovery of the North Cape in the Ninth Century. University Press. p. 72.
  116. ^ Dvornik 1949, p. 272.
  117. ^ Dvornik 1949, p. 270–271.
  118. ^ Faḍlān, Aḥmad Ibn (2012). Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North. Translated by Lunde, Paul; Stone, Caroline. Penguin. pp. 128, 200. ISBN 978-0-14-045507-6.
  119. ^ Lewicki, Tadeusz (1949). "Świat słowiański w oczach pisarzy arabskich". Slavia Antiqua (in Polish). 2 (2): 321–388. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  120. ^ Janković, Đorđe (2001). "Slovenski i srpski pogrebni obred u pisanim izvorima i arheološka građa" [Slavic and Serbian Mortuary Ritual in Written Sources and Archaeological Material]. Journal of the Serbian Archaeological Society (in Serbian) (17): 128. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  121. ^ Vlasto 1970, p. 144.
  122. ^ Vlasto 1970, p. 147.
  123. ^ a b c Pech 2015, pp. 129.
  124. ^ Reuter 2014, p. 166.
  125. ^ Dvornik 1956, pp. 108–109.
  126. ^ Reuter 2014, p. 165.
  127. ^ Dvornik 1956, p. 109.
  128. ^ Vlasto 1970, p. 90.
  129. ^ Reuter 2014, p. 257.
  130. ^ Cosmas of Prague 1923, pp. 28–29.
  131. ^ a b Havlíková 2016, p. 186.
  132. ^ Hengst 2016, p. 21.
  133. ^ Vatseba 2018a, p. 103.
  134. ^ Dvornik 1949, pp. 290.
  135. ^ Dvornik 1956, pp. 58.
  136. ^ Goetz 2015, p. 103.
Primary sources
Secondary sources

Further reading

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