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Review
. 2020 Jun 24:2:194-205.
doi: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.06.004. eCollection 2020.

A review of the newly identified impurity profiles in methamphetamine seizures

Isaac Onoka  1 , Andrew Toyi Banyika  1 , Protibha Nath Banerjee  1 , John J Makangara  1 , Laurence Dujourdy  2
Affiliations
Review

A review of the newly identified impurity profiles in methamphetamine seizures

Isaac Onoka et al. Forensic Sci Int Synerg. .

Abstract

Forensic intelligence of synthetic illicit drugs suffers a problem of continuous introduction of new synthetic methods, modification of the existing routes of manufacture, and adulterations practiced by criminal networks. Impurity profiling has been indispensable in methamphetamine intelligence based on precursors, synthetic routes, and chemical modifications during trafficking. Law enforcement authorities maintain the credibility and integrity of intelligence information through constant monitoring of the chemical signatures in the illicit drug market. Changes in the synthetic pattern result in new impurity profiles that are important in keeping valuable intelligence information on clandestine laboratories, new synthetic routes, trafficking patterns, and geographical sources of illicit Methamphetamine. This review presents a critical analysis of the methamphetamine impurity profiles and more specifically, profiling based on impurity profiles from Leuckart, Reductive amination, Moscow, Emde, Nagai, Birch, Moscow route; a recent nitrostyrene route and stable isotope signatures. It also highlights the discrimination of ephedrine from pseudoephedrine sources and the emerging methamphetamine profiling based on stable isotopes.

Keywords: Impurity profiles; Methamphetamine; Stable isotopes; Synthetic route.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Synthesis of MA from P2P routes: (I) Pd/H2/NH2CH3, (II) NaBH4/NH2CH3, (III) NaBH3CN/NH2CH3, (IV) Hg/Al/NH2CH3, (V) Pt/H2/NH2CH3 (VI) HCl/H2O.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Ephredine/Pseudoephredine synthetic routes: (I) Nagai route, (II) Emde route, (III) Hypo route, (IV) Moscow route (V) Rosenmund and (VI) Nazi/Birch route.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
A paradigm shift in MA precursor production: (a) PAA method,(b) nitrostyrene (NTS) method (c) 1–5 synthetic routes of P2P to MA.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
C-X reduction to form MA: X = Cl-, SO4-2, H2PO4, and ClO4.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Imine reduction to Methamphetamine: (I) P2P, (II) Methylamine, (III) Phenyl acetone methylimine (IV), Methamphetamine freebase, (V) Methamphetamine hydrochloride salt. (a) Removal of water, (b) reduction of imine to amine, (c) addition of hydrogen chloride.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Metal catalytic reduction of (1R, 2S)-(+)-ephedrine or (1S, 2S)-(+)-pseudoephedrine.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
The reaction mechanism for the formation of trans-N-methyl-4-methyl-5-phenyl-4-penten-2-amine.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Impurity profiles for NTS synthetic method. (a) N-Butylamphetamine synthetic route, (b) N-Clyclohexylamphetamine route.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
A synthetic mechanism of N1,N1,N2-trimethyl-N2-(1-phenylpropaN-2-yl)ethane-1,2-diamine from diphenhydramine: (a) formation of methamphetamine, (b) dissociation of diphenhydramine to imine and diphenyl methanol, (c) reaction between imine and methamphetamine to form N1,N1,N2-trimethyl-N2-(1-phenylpropan-2-yl)ethane-1,2-diamine. Source [93].
Fig. 10
Fig. 10
Different sources of ephedrine: (a) extraction from ephedra plant, (b) chemosynthesis, (c) semi-synthesis.
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