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Link to original content: http://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27009521
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Review
. 2016 Mar 24;3(3):CD008286.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008286.pub3.

Combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural interventions for smoking cessation

Lindsay F Stead  1 , Priya Koilpillai, Thomas R Fanshawe, Tim Lancaster
Affiliations
Review

Combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural interventions for smoking cessation

Lindsay F Stead et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Both behavioural support (including brief advice and counselling) and pharmacotherapies (including nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), varenicline and bupropion) are effective in helping people to stop smoking. Combining both treatment approaches is recommended where possible, but the size of the treatment effect with different combinations and in different settings and populations is unclear.

Objectives: To assess the effect of combining behavioural support and medication to aid smoking cessation, compared to a minimal intervention or usual care, and to identify whether there are different effects depending on characteristics of the treatment setting, intervention, population treated, or take-up of treatment.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialised Register in July 2015 for records with any mention of pharmacotherapy, including any type of NRT, bupropion, nortriptyline or varenicline.

Selection criteria: Randomized or quasi-randomized controlled trials evaluating combinations of pharmacotherapy and behavioural support for smoking cessation, compared to a control receiving usual care or brief advice or less intensive behavioural support. We excluded trials recruiting only pregnant women, trials recruiting only adolescents, and trials with less than six months follow-up.

Data collection and analysis: Search results were prescreened by one author and inclusion or exclusion of potentially relevant trials was agreed by two authors. Data was extracted by one author and checked by another.The main outcome measure was abstinence from smoking after at least six months of follow-up. We used the most rigorous definition of abstinence for each trial, and biochemically validated rates if available. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for each study. Where appropriate, we performed meta-analysis using a Mantel-Haenszel fixed-effect model.

Main results: Fifty-three studies with a total of more than 25,000 participants met the inclusion criteria. A large proportion of studies recruited people in healthcare settings or with specific health needs. Most studies provided NRT. Behavioural support was typically provided by specialists in cessation counselling, who offered between four and eight contact sessions. The planned maximum duration of contact was typically more than 30 minutes but less than 300 minutes. Overall, studies were at low or unclear risk of bias, and findings were not sensitive to the exclusion of any of the six studies rated at high risk of bias in one domain. One large study (the Lung Health Study) contributed heterogeneity due to a substantially larger treatment effect than seen in other studies (RR 3.88, 95% CI 3.35 to 4.50). Since this study used a particularly intensive intervention which included extended availability of nicotine gum, multiple group sessions and long term maintenance and recycling contacts, the results may not be comparable with the interventions used in other studies, and hence it was not pooled in other analyses. Based on the remaining 52 studies (19,488 participants) there was high quality evidence (using GRADE) for a benefit of combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural treatment compared to usual care, brief advice or less intensive behavioural support (RR 1.83, 95% CI 1.68 to 1.98) with moderate statistical heterogeneity (I² = 36%).The pooled estimate for 43 trials that recruited participants in healthcare settings (RR 1.97, 95% CI 1.79 to 2.18) was higher than for eight trials with community-based recruitment (RR 1.53, 95% CI 1.33 to 1.76). Compared to the first version of the review, previous weak evidence of differences in other subgroup analyses has disappeared. We did not detect differences between subgroups defined by motivation to quit, treatment provider, number or duration of support sessions, or take-up of treatment.

Authors' conclusions: Interventions that combine pharmacotherapy and behavioural support increase smoking cessation success compared to a minimal intervention or usual care. Updating this review with an additional 12 studies (5,000 participants) did not materially change the effect estimate. Although trials differed in the details of their populations and interventions, we did not detect any factors that modified treatment effects apart from the recruitment setting. We did not find evidence from indirect comparisons that offering more intensive behavioural support was associated with larger treatment effects.

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Conflict of interest statement

No authors have any conflicts of interest to report.

Figures

1
1
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
2
2
Combined intervention versus control. Cessation at longest follow‐up.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Primary analysis, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Primary analysis, Outcome 2 Lung Health Study.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Subgroups by setting, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Subgroup by motivation to quit, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Subgroup by treatment provider, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Subgroup by number of sessions, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Subgroup by duration of contact, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Subgroup by take‐up of treatment, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Subgroup by treatment take‐up, specialist support only, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 Subgroup by number of sessions, high take‐up only, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10 Subgroup by duration of contact, high take‐up only, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
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Rodriguez 2003 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Guallar‐Castillon P, Lafuente Urdinguio P, Garteizaurrekoa Dublang P, Sainz Martinez O, Diez Azcarate JI, Foj Aleman M, et al. Probability of success in tobacco quitting during the course of two simple medical interventions [Probabilidad de exito en el abandono del tabaco en el curso de dos intervenciones sencillas para dejar de fumar]. Revista Espanol de Salud Publica 2003;77(1):117‐24. - PubMed
    1. Rodriguez‐Artalejo F, Lafuente Urdinguio P, Guallar‐Castillon P, Garteizaurrekoa Dublang P, Sainz Martinez O, Diez Azcarate JI, et al. One year effectiveness of an individualised smoking cessation intervention at the workplace: a randomised controlled trial. Occupational Environmental Medicine 2003;60(3):358‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Sadr Azodi 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sadr Axodi O, Lindstrom D, Adami J, Tonnesen H, Nasell H, Gilljam H, et al. The efficacy of a smoking cessation programme in patients undergoing elective surgery: a randomised clinical trial. Anaesthesia 2009;64(3):259‐65. - PubMed
Schauffler 2001 {published data only}
    1. Schauffler HH, McMenamin S, Olson K, Boyce‐Smith G, Rideout JA, Kamil J. Variations in treatment benefits influence smoking cessation: results of a randomised controlled trial. Tobacco Control 2001;10(2):175‐80. - PMC - PubMed
Segnan 1991 {published data only}
    1. Segnan N, Ponti A, Battista RN, Senore C, Rosso S, Shapiro SH, et al. A randomized trial of smoking cessation interventions in general practice in Italy. Cancer Causes and Control 1991;2:239‐46. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Senore C, Battista RN, Ponti A, Segnan N, Shapiro SH, Rosso S, et al. Comparing participants and nonparticipants in a smoking cessation trial: Selection factors associated with general practitioner recruitment activity. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 1999;52:83‐9. - PubMed
    1. Senore C, Battista RN, Shapiro SH, Segnan N, Ponti A, Rosso S, et al. Predictors of smoking cessation following physicians' counseling. Preventive Medicine 1998;27(3):412‐21. - PubMed
Simon 1997 {published data only}
    1. Simon JA, Solkowitz SN, Carmody TP, Browner WS. Smoking cessation after surgery ‐ A randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 1997;157:1371‐6. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Stockings 2014 {published data only}
    1. The effect of an integrated smoking care program on the reduction and abstinence of smoking in mental health inpatients following discharge from hospital. Http://www.anzctr.org.au/trial_view.aspx?ID=83938 2012. [CRS: 9400123000016492]
    1. Stockings EA, Bowman JA, Baker AL, Terry M, Clancy R, Wye PM, et al. Impact of a postdischarge smoking cessation intervention for smokers admitted to an inpatient psychiatric facility: a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2014;16(11):1417‐28. [CENTRAL: 1036731; CRS: 9400129000003421; EMBASE: 2014920180; PUBMED: 24939916] - PubMed
    1. Stockings EA, Bowman JA, Wiggers J, Baker AL, Terry M, Clancy R, et al. A randomised controlled trial linking mental health inpatients to community smoking cessation supports: a study protocol. BMC Public Health 2011;11:570. [CENTRAL: 810681; CRS: 9400123000011878; EMBASE: 21762532; 6272; PUBMED: 21762532] - PMC - PubMed
Thomsen 2010 {published data only}
    1. Thomsen T, Tonnesen H, Okholm M, Kroman N, Maibom A, Sauerberg ML, et al. Brief smoking cessation intervention in relation to breast cancer surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(11):1118‐24. - PubMed
Tonnesen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Tonnesen P, Mikkelsen K, Bremann L. Nurse‐conducted smoking cessation in patients with COPD using nicotine sublingual tablets and behavioral support. Chest 2006;130(2):334‐42. - PubMed
Velicer 2006 {published data only}
    1. Velicer WF, Friedman RH, Fava JL, Gulliver SB, Keller S, Sun X, et al. Evaluating nicotine replacement therapy and stage‐based therapies in a population‐based effectiveness trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006;74(6):1162‐72. - PubMed
Vial 2002 {published data only}
    1. Vial RJ, Jones TE, Ruffin RE, Gilbert AL. Smoking cessation program using nicotine patches linking hospital to the community. Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research 2002;32(1):57‐62.
Villebro 2008 {published data only}
    1. Moller AM, Pedersen T, Villebro N, Norgaard P. Impact of lifestyle on perioperative smoking cessation and postoperative complication rate. Preventive Medicine 2003;36:704‐9. - PubMed
    1. Moller AM, Villebro N, Pedersen T, Tonnesen H. Effect of preoperative smoking intervention on postoperative complications: A randomised clinical trial. Lancet 2002;359:114‐7. - PubMed
    1. Villebro NM, Pedersen T, Moller AM, Tonnesen H. Long‐term effects of a preoperative smoking cessation programme. The Clinical Respiratory Journal 2008;2:175‐82. - PubMed
Wakefield 2004 {published data only}
    1. Wakefield M, Olver I, Whitford H, Rosenfeld E. Motivational interviewing as a smoking cessation intervention for patients with cancer: randomized controlled trial. Nursing Research 2004;53(6):396‐405. - PubMed
Wewers 2000 {published data only}
    1. Wewers ME, Neidig JL, Kihm KE. The feasibility of a nurse‐managed, peer‐led tobacco cessation intervention among HIV‐positive smokers. Journal of the Association of Nurses In Aids Care 2000;11(6):37‐44. - PubMed
Wewers 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hood NE, Ferketich AK, Paskett ED, Wewers ME. Treatment adherence in a lay health adviser intervention to treat tobacco dependence. Health Education Research 2013;28(1):72‐82. [CENTRAL: 921000; CRS: 9400107000000711; PEER: Reviewed Journal: 2013‐02978‐007; PUBMED: 22843347] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Troyer MB, Ferketich AK, Murray DM, Paskett ED, Wewers ME. Characteristics of rural Appalachian women who enroll in a tobacco dependence treatment clinical trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2011;13(9):880‐5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wewers ME, Ferketich AK, Harness J, Paskett ED. Effectiveness of a nurse‐managed, lay‐led tobacco cessation intervention among Ohio Appalachian women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 2009;18:3451‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Wilson 1988 {published data only}
    1. Wilson DM, Taylor DW, Gilbert JR, Best JA, Lindsay EA, Willms DG, et al. A randomized trial of a family physician intervention for smoking cessation. Journal of the American Medical Association 1988;260(11):1570‐4. - PubMed
Winhusen 2014 {published data only}
    1. Winhusen T, Stitzer M, Woody G, Brigham G, Kropp F, Ghitza U, et al. Design considerations for a study to evaluate the impact of smoking cessation treatment on stimulant use outcomes in stimulant‐dependent individuals. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2012;33(1):197‐205. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Winhusen TM, Brigham GS, Kropp F, Lindblad R, Gardin JG2, Penn P, et al. A randomized trial of concurrent smoking‐cessation and substance use disorder treatment in stimulant‐dependent smokers. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2014;75(4):336‐43. [CENTRAL: 883292; CRS: 9400129000001165; EMBASE: 2014305114; PUBMED: 24345356] - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Ahluwalia 2006 {published data only}
    1. Ahluwalia JS, Okuyemi K, Nollen N, Choi WS, Kaur H, Pulvers K, et al. The effects of nicotine gum and counseling among African American light smokers: A 2 x 2 factorial design. Addiction 2006;101:883‐91. - PubMed
    1. Berg CJ, Thomas JL, An LC, Guo H, Collins T, Okuyemi Kolawole S, et al. Change in smoking, diet, and walking for exercise in Blacks. Health Education & Behavior 2012;39(2):191‐7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Nollen NL, Mayo MS, Sanderson CL, Okuyemi KS, Choi WS, Kaur H, et al. Predictors of quitting among African American light smokers enrolled in a randomized, placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2006;21:590‐5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Okuyemi KS, Cox LS, Nollen NL, Snow TM, Kaur H, Choi W, et al. Baseline characteristics and recruitment strategies in a randomized clinical trial of African‐American light smokers. American Journal of Health Promotion 2007;21:183‐91. - PubMed
    1. Okuyemi KS, Faseru B, Sanderson CL, Bronars CA, Ahluwalia JS. Relationship between menthol cigarettes and smoking cessation among African American light smokers. Addiction 2007;102:1979‐86. - PubMed
Alterman 2001 {published data only}
    1. Alterman AI, Gariti P, Cook TG, Cnaan A. Nicodermal patch adherence and its correlates. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 1999;53:159‐65. - PubMed
    1. Alterman AI, Gariti P, Mulvaney F. Short‐ and long‐term smoking cessation for three levels of intensity of behavioral treatment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2001;15:261‐4. - PubMed
Andrews 2007 {published data only}
    1. Andrews JO, Felton G, Wewers ME, Waller J, Tingen M. The effect of a multi‐component smoking cessation intervention in African American women residing in public housing. Research in Nursing & Health 2007;30(1):45‐60. - PubMed
Aveyard 2007 {published data only}
    1. Aveyard P, Brown K, Saunders C, Alexander A, Johnstone E, Munafo MR, et al. Weekly versus basic smoking cessation support in primary care: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax 2007;62:898‐903. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Greaves C. Smoking cessation trial may be missing the point [comment]. Thorax 2008;63:291‐2. - PubMed
Berndt 2014 {published data only}
    1. Berndt N, Bolman C, Froelicher ES, Mudde A, Candel M, Vries H, et al. Effectiveness of a telephone delivered and a face‐to‐face delivered counseling intervention for smoking cessation in patients with coronary heart disease: a 6‐month follow‐up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2014;37(4):709‐24. [CENTRAL: 1000936; CRS: 9400107000001638; PUBMED: 23760610] - PubMed
    1. Berndt N, Bolman C, Lechner L, Mudde A, Verheugt FW, Vries H. Effectiveness of two intensive treatment methods for smoking cessation and relapse prevention in patients with coronary heart disease: study protocol and baseline description. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders 2012;12:33. [CENTRAL: 840357; CRS: 9400123000016156; EMBASE: 2012574240; PUBMED: 22587684] - PMC - PubMed
Bernstein 2011 {published data only}
    1. Bernstein SL, Bijur P, Cooperman N, Jearld S, Arnsten JH, Moadel A, et al. A randomized trial of a multicomponent cessation strategy for emergency department smokers. Academic Emergency Medicine 2011;18:575‐83. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Bernstein SL, Bijur P, Cooperman N, Jearld S, Arnsten JH, Moadel A, et al. Efficacy of an emergency department‐based multicomponent intervention for smokers with substance use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2013;44(1):139‐42. [CENTRAL: 867792; CRS: 9400107000000027; PUBMED: 22763199] - PMC - PubMed
Bock 2008 {published data only}
    1. Bock BC, Becker BM, Niaura RS, Partridge R, Fava JL, Trask P. Smoking cessation among patients in an emergency chest pain observation unit: outcomes of the Chest Pain Smoking Study (CPSS). Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(10):1523‐31. - PubMed
Bock 2014 {published data only}
    1. Bock BC, Papandonatos GD, Dios MA, Abrams DB, Azam MM, Fagan M, et al. Tobacco cessation among low‐income smokers: motivational enhancement and nicotine patch treatment. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2014;16(4):413‐22. [CENTRAL: 986341; CRS: 9400050000000050; EMBASE: 2014185069; PUBMED: 24174612] - PMC - PubMed
Boyle 2007 {published data only}
    1. Boyle RG, Solberg LI, Asche SE, Boucher JL, Pronk NP, Jensen CJ. Offering telephone counseling to smokers using pharmacotherapy. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2005;7(Suppl 1):S19‐27. - PubMed
    1. Boyle RG, Solberg LI, Asche SE, Maciosek MV, Boucher JL, Pronk NP. Proactive recruitment of health plan smokers into telephone counseling. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9:581‐9. - PubMed
Brown 2007 {published data only}
    1. Brown RA, Niaura R, Lloyd‐Richardson EE, Strong DR, Kahler CW, Abrantes AM, et al. Bupropion and cognitive‐behavioral treatment for depression in smoking cessation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9(7):721‐30. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Strong DR, Kahler CW, Leventhal AM, Abrantes AM, Lloyd‐Richardson E, Niaura R, et al. Impact of bupropion and cognitive‐behavioral treatment for depression on positive affect, negative affect, and urges to smoke during cessation treatment. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11:1142‐53. - PMC - PubMed
Brown 2013 {published data only}
    1. Brown RA, Reed KM, Bloom EL, Minami H, Strong DR, Lejuez CW, et al. Development and preliminary randomized controlled trial of a distress tolerance treatment for smokers with a history of early lapse. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(12):2005‐15. [CENTRAL: 915430; CRS: 9400129000000262; EMBASE: 2013716990; PUBMED: 23884317] - PMC - PubMed
BTS 1983 {published data only}
    1. British Thoracic Society. Comparison of four methods of smoking withdrawal in patients with smoking related diseases. Report by a subcommittee of the Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society. BMJ 1983;286:595‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Buchanan 2004 {published data only}
    1. Buchanan LM, Banna M, White A, Moses S, Siedlik C, Wood M. An exploratory study of multicomponent treatment intervention for tobacco dependency. Journal of Nursing Scholarship 2004;36:324‐30. - PubMed
Bushnell 1997 {published data only}
    1. Bushnell FK, Forbes B, Goffaux J, Dietrich M, Wells N. Smoking cessation in military personnel. Military Medicine 1997;162(11):715‐9. - PubMed
Calabro 2012 {published data only}
    1. Calabro KS, Marani S, Yost T, Segura J, Mullin Jones M, Nelson S, et al. Project SUCCESS: results from a randomized controlled trial. ISRN Public Health 2012:Article ID 913713. [CENTRAL: 836719; CRS: 9400123000016091]
    1. Prokhorov AV, Marani S, Vost T, Luca M, Mullen M. Project SUCCESS: students using computerized coaching to end smoking successfully [PA2‐3]. Society for Research on Nicotine & Tobacco 17th Annual Meeting, February 16‐19, Toronto. 2011:18. [CENTRAL: 795274; CRS: 9400123000006112; 31113]
Campbell 1995 {published data only}
    1. Campbell BK, Wander N, Stark MJ, Holbert T. Treating cigarette‐smoking in drug‐abusing clients. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1995;12:89‐94. - PubMed
Chan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Chan SS, Leung DY, Abdullah AS, Wong VT, Hedley AJ, Lam TH. A randomized controlled trial of a smoking reduction plus nicotine replacement therapy intervention for smokers not willing to quit smoking. Addiction 2011;106(6):1155‐63. - PubMed
Christenhusz 2007 {published data only}
    1. Christenhusz L, Pieterse M, Seydel E, PJ. Prospective determinants of smoking cessation in COPD patients within a high intensity or a brief counseling intervention. Patient Education & Counseling 2007;66(2):162‐6. - PubMed
    1. Christenhusz LC, Prenger R, Pieterse ME, Seydel ER, Palen J. Cost‐effectiveness of an intensive smoking cessation intervention for COPD outpatients. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2012;14(6):657‐63. [CENTRAL: 834174; CRS: 9400123000014488; EMBASE: 2012309134; PUBMED: 22180589] - PubMed
Costello 2011 {published data only}
    1. Costello MJ, Sproule B, Victor JC, Leatherdale ST, Zawertailo L, Selby P. Effectiveness of pharmacist counseling combined with nicotine replacement therapy: a pragmatic randomized trial with 6,987 smokers. Cancer Causes & Control 2011;22(2):167‐80. - PubMed
Cropsey 2008 {published data only}
    1. Berg CJ, Ahluwalia JS, Cropsey K. Predictors of adherence to behavioral counseling and medication among female prisoners enrolled in a smoking cessation trial. Journal of Correctional Health Care 2013;19(4):236‐47. [CENTRAL: 1000792; CRS: 9400129000001078; PUBMED: 23955055] - PubMed
    1. Cropsey K, Eldridge G, Weaver M, Villalobos G, Stitzer M, Best A. Smoking cessation intervention for female prisoners: addressing an urgent public health need. American Journal of Public Health 2008;98(10):1894‐901. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cropsey KL, Jackson DO, Hale GJ, Carpenter MJ, Stitzer ML. Impact of self‐initiated pre‐quit smoking reduction on cessation rates: results of a clinical trial of smoking cessation among female prisoners. Addictive Behaviors 2011;36(1‐2):73‐8. [CENTRAL: 794056; CRS: 9400123000006091] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cropsey KL, Weaver MF, Eldridge GD, Villalobos GC, Best AM, Stitzer ML. Differential success rates in racial groups: results of a clinical trial of smoking cessation among female prisoners. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(6):690‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Cropsey 2013 {published data only}
    1. Cropsey KL, Hendricks PS, Jardin B, Clark CB, Katiyar N, Willig J, et al. A pilot study of screening, brief intervention, and referral for treatment (SBIRT) in non‐treatment seeking smokers with HIV. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(10):2541‐6. [CENTRAL: 875522; CRS: 9400107000001206; EMBASE: 2013410228; PEER: Reviewed Journal: 2013‐27387‐013; PUBMED: 23787030] - PMC - PubMed
Ellerbeck 2009 {published data only}
    1. Cox LS, Cupertino AP, Mussulman LM, Nazir N, Greiner KA, Mahnken JD, et al. Design and baseline characteristics from the KAN‐QUIT disease management intervention for rural smokers in primary care. Preventive Medicine 2008;47(2):200‐5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ellerbeck EF, Mahnken JD, Cupertino AP, Cox LS, Greiner KA, Mussulman LM, et al. Effect of varying levels of disease management on smoking cessation: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2009;150(7):437‐46. - PMC - PubMed
Ferguson 2012 {published data only}
    1. Coleman T, McEwen A, Bauld L, Ferguson J, Lorgelly P, Lewis S. Protocol for the Proactive Or Reactive Telephone Smoking CeSsation Support (PORTSSS) trial. Trials [Electronic Resource] 2009;10:26. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ferguson J, Docherty G, Bauld L, Lewis S, Lorgelly P, Boyd KA, et al. Effect of offering different levels of support and free nicotine replacement therapy via an English national telephone quitline: randomised controlled trial. BMJ March 2012;344:e1696. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e1696] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Fiore 2004 {published data only}
    1. Fiore MC, McCarthy DE, Jackson TC, Zehner ME, Jorenby DE, Mielke M, et al. Integrating smoking cessation treatment into primary care: An effectiveness study. Preventive Medicine 2004;38:412‐20. - PubMed
Fraser 2014 {published data only}
    1. Fraser D, Kobinsky K, Smith SS, Kramer J, Theobald WE, Baker TB. Five population‐based interventions for smoking cessation: a MOST trial. Translational Behavioral Medicine 2014;4(4):382‐90. [CENTRAL: 1040081; CRS: 9400129000003838; EMBASE: 2015657527; PUBMED: 25584087] - PMC - PubMed
Gariti 2009 {published data only}
    1. Gariti P, Levin S, Whittingham T, Barou D, Kampman KM, Lynch K, et al. Why do those who request smoking treatment fail to attend the first appointment?. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2008;35:62‐7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Gariti P, Lynch K, Alterman A, Kampman K, Xie H, Varillo K. Comparing smoking treatment programs for lighter smokers with and without a history of heavier smoking. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2009;37(3):247‐55. - PMC - PubMed
Gifford 2011 {published data only}
    1. Gifford EV, Kohlenberg BS, Hayes SC, Pierson HM, Piasecki MP, Antonuccio DO, et al. Does acceptance and relationship focused behavior therapy contribute to bupropion outcomes? A randomized controlled trial of functional analytic psychotherapy and acceptance and commitment therapy for smoking cessation. Behavior Therapy 2011;42(4):700‐15. [CENTRAL: 814642; CRS: 9400123000012398; 6939; PUBMED: 22035998] - PubMed
Ginsberg 1992 {published data only}
    1. Ginsberg D, Hall SM, Rosinski M. Partner support, psychological treatment, and nicotine gum in smoking treatment: an incremental study. International Journal of the Addictions 1992;27:503‐14. - PubMed
Gordon 2010 {published data only}
    1. Gordon JS, Andrews JA, Albert DA, Crews KM, Payne TJ, Severson HH. Tobacco cessation via public dental clinics: results of a randomized trial. American Journal of Public Health 2010;100(7):1307‐12. - PMC - PubMed
Hall 1985 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Killen JD. Psychological and pharmacological approaches to smoking relapse prevention. NIDA Research Monograph 1985;53:131‐43. - PubMed
    1. Hall SM, Tunstall C, Rugg D, Jones R, Benowitz N. Nicotine gum and behavioral treatment in smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1985;53(2):256‐8. - PubMed
Hall 1987 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Tunstall CD, Ginsberg D, Benowitz NL, Jones RT. Nicotine gum and behavioral treatment: a placebo controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1987;55:603‐5. - PubMed
Hall 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Munoz RF, Reus VI. Cognitive‐behavioral intervention increases abstinence rates for depressive‐history smokers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1994;62:141‐6. - PubMed
Hall 1996 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Munoz RF, Reus VI, Sees KL, Duncan C, Humfleet GL, et al. Mood management and nicotine gum in smoking treatment ‐ a therapeutic contact and placebo‐controlled study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1996;64:1003‐09. - PubMed
Hall 1998 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Reus VI, Munoz RF, Sees KL, Humfleet G, Hartz DT, et al. Nortriptyline and cognitive‐behavioral therapy in the treatment of cigarette smoking. Archives of General Psychiatry 1998;55:683‐90. - PubMed
    1. Hall SM, Reus VI, Munoz RF, Sees KL, Humfleet GL, Frederick S. Nortriptyline and cognitive‐behavioral treatment of cigarette smoking. CPDD Annual Meeting. San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1996:52.
Hall 2004 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Humfleet GL, Reus VI, Munoz RF, Cullen J. Extended nortriptyline and psychological treatment for cigarette smoking. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004;161(11):2100‐7. - PubMed
Hall 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Humfleet GL, Munoz RF, Reus VI, Robbins JA, Prochaska JJ. Extended treatment of older cigarette smokers. Addiction 2009;104:1043‐52. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hendricks PS, Delucchi KL, Hall SM. Mechanisms of change in extended cognitive behavioral treatment for tobacco dependence. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2010;109:114‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Hall 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Humfleet GL, Muñoz RF, Reus VI, Prochaska JJ, Robbins JA. Using extended cognitive behavioral treatment and medication to treat dependent smokers. American Journal of Public Health 2011;101(12):2349‐56. - PMC - PubMed
Hegaard 2003 {published data only}
    1. Hegaard HK, Kjaergaard H, Moller LF, Wachmann H, Ottesen B. Multimodal intervention raises smoking cessation rate during pregnancy. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2003;82(9):813‐9. - PubMed
Hokanson 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hokanson JM, Anderson RL, Hennrikus DJ, Lando HA, Kendall DM. Integrated tobacco cessation counseling in a diabetes self‐management training program: a randomized trial of diabetes and reduction of tobacco. The Diabetes Educator 2006;32(4):562‐70. - PubMed
Huber 1988 {published data only}
    1. Huber D. Combined and separate treatment effects of nicotine chewing gum and self‐control method. Pharmacopsychiatry 1988;21:461‐2. - PubMed
Huber 2003 {published data only}
    1. Huber D, Gastner J. Smoking cessation: A comparison of behavior therapy, nicotine replacement therapy and their combination. Verhaltenstherapie und Verhaltenshmedizin 2003;24:167‐85.
Humfleet 2013 {published data only}
    1. Humfleet GL, Hall SM, Delucchi KL, Dilley JW. A randomized clinical trial of smoking cessation treatments provided in HIV clinical care settings. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(8):1436‐45. [CENTRAL: 861196; CRS: 9400123000017501; EMBASE: 2013472501; OI:SOURCE:: NLM. PMC3715392 [Available on 08/01/14]; PUBMED: 23430708] - PMC - PubMed
Ingersoll 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ingersoll KS, Cropsey KL, Heckman CJ. A test of motivational plus nicotine replacement interventions for HIV positive smokers. AIDS & Behavior 2009;13(3):545‐54. - PMC - PubMed
Japuntich 2006 {published data only}
    1. Japuntich SJ, Zehner ME, Smith SS, Jorenby DE, Valdez JA, Fiore MC, et al. Smoking cessation via the internet: a randomized clinical trial of an internet intervention as adjuvant treatment in a smoking cessation intervention. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2006;8(Suppl 1):S59‐67. - PubMed
Jennings 2014 {published data only}
    1. Jennings C, Kotseva K, Bacquer D, Hoes A, Velasco J, Brusaferro S, et al. Effectiveness of a preventive cardiology programme for high CVD risk persistent smokers: the EUROACTION PLUS varenicline trial. European Heart Journal 2014;35(21):1411‐20. [CENTRAL: 996426; CRS: 9400129000002224; EMBASE: 2014386940; PUBMED: 24616337] - PubMed
Jorenby 1995 {published data only}
    1. Jorenby DE, Smith SS, Fiore MC, Hurt RD, Offord KP, Croghan IT, et al. Varying nicotine patch dose and type of smoking cessation counseling. JAMA 1995;274:1347‐52. - PubMed
Joseph 2004 {published data only}
    1. Joseph AM, Nelson DB, Nugent SM, Willenbring ML. Timing of alcohol and smoking cessation (TASC): smoking among substance use patients screened and enrolled in a clinical trial. Journal of Addictive Disease 2003;22:87‐107. - PubMed
    1. Joseph AM, Willenbring ML, Nugent SM, Nelson DB. A randomized trial of concurrent versus delayed smoking intervention for patients in alcohol dependence treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 2004;65(6):681‐91. - PubMed
Joyce 2008 {published data only}
    1. Joyce GF, Niaura R, Maglione M, Mongoven J, Larson‐Rotter C, Coan J, et al. The effectiveness of covering smoking cessation services for medicare beneficiaries. Health Services Research 2008;43(6):2106‐23. - PMC - PubMed
Katz 2002 {published data only}
    1. Katz DA, Muehlenbruch DR, Brown RB, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Effectiveness of a clinic‐based strategy for implementing the AHRQ Smoking Cessation Guideline in primary care. Preventive Medicine 2002;35:293‐301. - PubMed
Killen 2008 {published data only}
    1. Killen JD, Fortmann SP, Schatzberg AF, Arredondo C, Murphy G, Hayward C, et al. Extended cognitive behavior therapy for cigarette smoking cessation. Addiction 2008;103(8):1381‐90. - PMC - PubMed
Kinnunen 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kinnunen T, Leeman RF, Korhonen T, Quiles ZN, Terwal DM, Garvey AJ, et al. Exercise as an adjunct to nicotine gum in treating tobacco dependence among women. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(4):689‐703. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Korhonen T, Goodwin A, Miesmaa P, Dupuis EA, Kinnunen T. Smoking cessation program with exercise improves cardiovascular disease biomarkers in sedentary women. Journal of Women's Health 2011;20(7):1051‐64. - PMC - PubMed
Lacasse 2008 {published data only}
    1. Lacasse Y, Lamontagne R, Martin S, Simard S, Arsenault M. Randomized trial of a smoking cessation intervention in hospitalized patients. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(7):1215‐21. - PubMed
Lando 1997 {published data only}
    1. Lando HA, Rolnick S, Klevan D, Roski J, Cherney L, Lauger G. Telephone support as an adjunct to transdermal nicotine in smoking cessation. American Journal of Public Health 1997;87:1670‐4. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rolnick SJ, Klevan D, Cherney L, Lando HA. Nicotine replacement therapy in a group model HMO. HMO Practice 1997;11:34‐7. - PubMed
Levine 2010 {published data only}
    1. Levine MD, Perkins KA, Kalarchian MA, Cheng Y, Houck PR, Slane JD, et al. Bupropion and cognitive behavioral therapy for weight‐concerned women smokers. Archives of Internal Medicine 2010;170:543‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Lifrak 1997 {published data only}
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Lloyd‐Richardson 2009 {published data only}
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Okuyemi 2006 {published data only}
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Pakhale 2015 {published data only}
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Park 2011 {published data only}
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Reid 1999 {published data only}
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Rohsenow 2014 {published data only}
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Schmitz 2007 {published data only}
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Schnoll 2005 {published data only}
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Shiffman 2000 {published data only}
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Simon 2003 {published data only}
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Solomon 2000 {published data only}
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Solomon 2005 {published data only}
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Sorensen 2003 {published data only}
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Stein 2006 {published data only}
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Strecher 2005 {published data only}
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References to ongoing studies

Aung 2013 {published data only}
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Duffy 2012 {published data only}
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Urdapilleta‐Herrera 2013 {published data only}
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Weaver 2015 {published data only}
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Wong 2008 {published data only}
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Additional references

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