iBet uBet web content aggregator. Adding the entire web to your favor.
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Merv - Wikipedija Aqbeż għall-kontentut

Merv

Minn Wikipedija, l-enċiklopedija l-ħielsa
Il-fdalijiet tal-fortizza l-kbira f'Merv.

Merv (bit-Turkmen: Merw, Мерв, مرو; bil-Persjan: مرو, Marv), magħrufa wkoll bħala l-Oażi ta' Merve, li qabel kienet magħrufa bħala Lixandra (bil-Grieg: Ἀλεξάνδρεια), Antjokja f'Marġjana (bil-Grieg: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ) u Marw al-Shāhijān, kienet belt Iranjana ewlenija fl-Asja Ċentrali, tul it-Toroq tal-Ħarir storiċi, qrib il-belt attwali ta' Mary, it-Turkmenistan.[1] L-insedjamenti umani fis-sit ta' Merv kienu jeżistu mit-tielet millenju Q.K. sas-seklu 18 W.K. Ir-riedni tal-belt għaddew minn id għall-oħra kemm-il darba tul l-istorja. Taħt l-Imperu Akemenida, kienet iċ-ċentru tas-satrapija ta' Marġjana. Sussegwentement tmexxiet mill-Maċedoni tal-Qedem, mill-Partiċi, mis-Sassanidi, mill-Għarab, mill-Gażnavidi, mis-Seljuk, mill-Kwarażmjani u mit-Timuridi, fost oħrajn.

Merv kienet il-belt kapitali ta' diversi popli tul l-istorja tagħha. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 9, Merv kienet is-sede tal-Kaliff al-Ma'mun u l-belt kapitali tal-Kaliffat Iżlamiku kollu.[2] Iktar 'il quddiem kienet is-sede tal-mexxejj Taħiridi ta' Khorasan.[3] Fis-sekli 11 u 12, Merv kienet il-belt kapitali tal-Imperu Seljuk il-Kbir u baqgħet hekk sal-waqgħa aħħarija tal-imperu.[4][5][6] Għall-ħabta ta' dak iż-żmien, Merv saret ċentru ewlieni tax-xjenza u tal-kultura Iżlamika, u attirat kif ukoll ipproduċiet poeti, mużiċisti, tobba, matematiċi u astronomi rinomati. Il-poliedriku Persjan il-kbir Omar Khayyam, fost l-oħrajn, qatta' għadd ta' snin jaħdem fl-osservatorju f'Merv. Kif kiteb il-ġeografu u l-vjaġġatur Persjan al-Istakhri dwar Merv: "Mill-pajjiżi kollha tal-Iran, dawn in-nies kienu magħrufa għat-talenti u għall-edukazzjoni tagħhom". Il-ġeografu Għarbi Yaqut al-Hamawi semma saħansitra 10 librerija enormi f'Merv, inkluż waħda fi ħdan moskea ewlenija li kien fiha 12,000 volum.[7]

Merv kienet ukoll post popolari għall-pellegrinaġġi, u diversi reliġjonijiet kienu jqisuha bħala sagra. Fiż-Żoroastrijaniżmu, Merv (Mouru) kienet waħda mis-16-il art perfetta maħluqa mill-alla Ahura Mazda. Bejn is-sekli 5 u 11, Merv kienet is-sede ta' provinċja metropolitana tal-Lvant tas-Sirja. Dixxendent tal-profeta Iżlamiku Muħammed, it-tmien Imam Xigħa Ali ar-Ridha (Imam Reza), ittrasferixxa lilu nnifsu f'Merv minn Bagdad u rresjeda hemmhekk għal diversi snin.[8] Al-Muqanna, il-"Profeta bil-Velu", li kellu bosta segwaċi peress li sostna li kien inkarnazzjoni ta' Alla, twieled u beda l-moviment tiegħu f'Merv.[9]

Matul is-sekli 12 u 13, Merv jaf kienet l-ikbar belt fid-dinja, b'popolazzjoni ta' 500,000 ruħ. Matul dak il-perjodu, Merv kienet magħrufa bħala "Marw al-Shāhijān" (Merv il-Kbira), u spiss kienet tiġi deskritta bħala "l-kapitali tad-dinja Iżlamika tal-Lvant". Skont il-ġeografu Yaqut al-Hamawi, il-belt u l-istrutturi tagħha kienu viżibbli minn bogħod ta' jum ivvjaġġar. Fl-1221, il-belt fetħet id-daħliet tagħha għal invażjoni mill-Mongoli, u dan irriżulta f'devastazzjoni enormi. Ġrajjiet storiċi jsostnu li l-popolazzjoni kollha (inkluż ir-refuġjati) inqatlet; jissemma li Tolui Khan qatel sa 700,000 ruħ.[10][11][12] Għalkemm parzjalment ġiet rikostruwita wara l-qerda tal-invażjoni tal-Mongoli, il-belt qatt ma reġgħet kisbet il-prosperità li kellha fl-imgħoddi. Bejn l-1788 u l-1789, il-belt inqerdet għall-aħħar darba, u l-popolazzjoni tagħha ġiet deportata. Sas-seklu 19, taħt pressjoni mir-Russi, Merv ġiet abbandunata għalkollox.[13]

Illum il-ġurnata s-sit huwa ppreservat bħala park storiku u kulturali statali. Huwa l-eqdem belt mill-bliet-oażi tul it-Toroq tal-Ħarir storiċi u l-iżjed wieħed ippreservat. Għad hemm ftit binjiet u strutturi li għadhom jeżistu sa llum il-ġurnata, speċjalment dawk mibnija fl-aħħar żewġ millenji. Is-sit ta' Merv tniżżel fil-lista tas-Siti ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO.[14]

Il-fdalijiet tal-belt tal-qedem ta' Merv illum il-ġurnata.

Merv għandha għeruq preistoriċi: stħarriġiet arkeoloġiċi żvelaw traċċi ta' insedjament li jmorru lura saħansitra sat-tielet millenju Q.K. u dawn ġew assoċjati kulturalment mal-Kumpless Arkeoloġiku ta' Baktrija-Marġjana. Il-ġeografija taż-Żend-Avesta (kummentarji dwar l-Avesta) issemmi lil Merv (bl-istem ta' Mouru) flimkien ma' Balkh. Fiż-Żoroastrijaniżmu, l-alla Ahura Mazda ħalaq lil Mouru bħala waħda mis-sittax-il art perfetta.[15]

Taħt l-Imperu Akemenid (għall-ħabta tal-550-330 Q.K.), il-ġrajjiet storiċi jsemmu lil Merv bħala post ta' ċertu importanza: bl-isem ta' Margu; tissemma bħala parti minn satrapija fl-iskrizzjonijiet ta' Behistun (għall-ħabta tal-515 Q.K.) tal-monarka Persjan Darius il-Kbir. L-ewwel belt ta' Merv ġiet stabbilita fis-seklu 6 Q.K. bħala parti mill-espansjoni tal-Akemenidi fir-reġjun ta' Cyrus il-Kbir (559-530 Q.K.), iżda strati li ġew iktar 'il quddiem jgħattu l-livelli Akemenidi fis-sit.[16]

Munita tar-re tas-Sassanidi Shapur III, izzekkata f'Merv.

Era Ellenistika

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Iż-żjara ta' Alessandru l-Kbir f'Merv hija sempliċement leġġendarja, iżda l-belt issemmiet Lixandra (Ἀλεξάνδρεια) għalih għal xi żmien. Wara mewtu fit-323 Q.K., saret il-belt kapitali tal-Provinċja ta' Marġjana tal-istati Selewċidi, Griegi-Baktrijani (256-125 Q.K.), Partiċi, u Sassanidi.[17]

Il-mexxej tas-Selewċidi, Antiochus Soter (li rrenja mill-281 sal-261 Q.K.), semmiha Antjokja Marġjana; huwa bena mill-ġdid u kabbar il-belt fis-sit li attwalment huwa magħruf bħala l-fortizza ta' Gyaur Gala. Isidore ta' Charax kiteb li Antjokja kienet tissejjaħ "il-belt mhux misqija" (Ἄνυδρος).[18][19]

Wara l-waqgħa tad-dinastija tas-Selewċidi (63 Q.K.), Baktrija, Partja, u l-Kuxani ħadu l-kontroll wara xulxin. Fit-53 Q.K., xi 10,000 priġunier Ruman tal-gwerra mill-Battalja ta' Carrhae milli jidher ġew deportati lejn Merv.[20]

Merv kienet belt ewlenija ta' tagħlim Buddist, b'monasteri u tempji Buddisti għal bosta sekli sal-Iżlamizzazzjoni tagħha.[21][22] Fis-siti ta' Gyaur Kala u Baýramaly, il-Buddiżmu kien segwit u pprattikat spiss fl-istupi Buddisti lokali.[23]

Ambaxxatur ta' Merv (靺國 Moguo) għad-dinastija Tang, Wanghuitu (王會圖), għall-ħabta tas-650 W.K.

Era tas-Sassanidi

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Wara li s-Sassanidi taħt Ardashir I (220-240 W.K.) ħakmu lil Merv, l-istudju tan-numismatika jgħin fir-rikostruzzjoni tal-istorja: is-sensiela ta' muniti zzekkati oriġinarjament f'Merv li nstabu jiddokumentaw li t-tmexxija tas-Sassanidi damet kważi erba' sekli. Matul dan il-perjodu, Merv kienet tospita prattikanti ta' diversi reliġjonijiet apparti ż-Żoroastrijaniżmu uffiċjali tas-Sassanidi, inkluż il-Buddiżmu, il-Manikeiżmu u l-Kristjaneżmu tal-Knisja tal-Lvant. Bejn is-sekli 5 u 11, Merv kienet is-sede ta' provinċja metropolitana tal-Lvant tas-Sirja. L-ewwel isqof kien Barshabba (għall-ħabta tat-360/424). L-okkupazzjoni tal-Ħeftaliti mill-aħħar tas-seklu 5 sal-565 W.K. waqfet it-tmexxija tas-Sassanidi għal żmien qasir.[24]

Ħakma u influwenza Għarbija

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It-tmexxija tas-Sassanidi ntemmet meta l-aħħar mexxej tas-Sassanidi, Yazdegerd III (632-651) inqatel qrib il-belt u l-gvernatur militari tas-Sassanidi arrenda quddiem il-wasla tal-armata Għarbija. Rappreżentanti tal-Kaliff Umar okkupaw il-belt, li saret il-belt kapitali tal-provinċja ta' Khorasan tal-Kaliffat ta' Umayyad.[25] Fis-671, Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan bagħat 50,000 truppa Għarbija lejn Merv bħala kolonja. Din il-kolonja żammet is-simpatiji Kufani nattivi tagħha u saret in-nukleu ta' Khurasan. Billi użaw il-belt bħala l-bażi tagħhom, l-Għarab, immexxija minn Qutayba ibn Muslim mis-705 sas-715, irnexxielhom iġibu lil partijiet kbar tal-Asja Ċentrali, inkluż Balkh, Bokhara, u Fergana taħthom. Merv u Khorasan, inġeneral, saru wħud mill-ewwel partijiet tad-dinja li jitkellmu bil-Persjan li kellhom maġġoranza Musulmana. L-immigrazzjoni tal-Għarab lejn l-inħawi kienet sostanzjali. Raġel Ċiniż maħtuf f'Talas, Du Huan, ittieħed lejn Bagdad u żar il-Kaliffat. Huwa osserva li f'Merv u f'Khurasan, l-Għarab u l-Persjani għexu f'konċentrazzjonijiet imħallta.[26]

Il-Mawżolej ta' żewġ aħwa Askhab f'Merv.

Merv reġgħet kisbet importanza fi Frar 748 meta l-ġeneral Iranjan Abu Muslim (li miet fis-755) iddikjara dinastija ġdid tal-Abbasidi f'Merv, kabbar u stabbilixxa l-belt mill-ġdid, u, f'isem id-dinastija tal-Abbasidi, uża l-belt bħala bażi għal ribelljoni kontra l-Kaliffat ta' Umayyad. Wara li l-Abbasidi stabbilew ruħhom f'Bagdad, Abu Muslim kompla jmexxi f'Merv bħala prinċep semiindipendenti sa ma eventwalment inqatel. Tabilħaqq, Merv kienet iċ-ċentru tal-Abbasidi matul ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Abbasidi tas-746-750, u saret sors konsistenti ta' appoġġ politiku għall-mexxejja Abbasidi f'Bagdad iktar 'il quddiem; il-governorat ta' Khurasan f'Merv sar wieħed mill-iżjed entitajiet politiċi importanti tal-Kaliffat. Il-familja influwenti tal-Barmakidi, ibbażat f'Merv, kellha rwol importanti fit-trasferiment tal-għarfien tal-Griegi (stabbiliti f'Merv minn żmien is-Selewċidi u l-Griegi-Baktrijani) fid-dinja Għarbija.[27]

Matul l-era tal-Abbasidi, Merv baqgħet il-belt kapitali u l-iżjed belt importanti ta' Khurasan. Matul dak iż-żmien, l-istoriku Għarbi Al-Muqaddasi (għall-ħabta tad-945/946-991) iddeskriva lil Merv bħala "sabiħa, fina, eleganti, brillanti, estensiva u pjaċevoli". L-arkitettura ta' Merv ispirat l-ippjanar mill-ġdid ta' Bagdad min-naħa tal-Abbasidi. Storiku Għarbi tas-seklu 10, Ibn Hawqal, kiteb dwar Merv: "u fl-ebda belt oħra ma hemm palazzi, għelieqi kkultivati, ġonna u nixxigħat simili".

Merv kienet magħrufa wkoll għat-tessuti tagħha ta' kwalità għolja. Ġeografu Għarbi tas-seklu 12 al-Idrisi nnota: "Minn dan il-pajjiż joriġina ħafna mill-ħarir kif ukoll il-qoton ta' kwalità superjuri bl-isem ta' qoton ta' Merv, li huwa tassew artab". Id-dinja Iżlamika kienet tammira l-ilbies eleganti u t-turbani tal-ħarir li kienu jiġu prodotti f'Merv. Il-belt kienet notevoli għaliex kienet tilqa' lill-immigranti minn artijiet Għarab u dawk minn Sogdja u inħawi oħra fl-Asja Ċentrali.[28]

Mawżolew tas-sultan Seljuk Ahmad Sanjar.

Fil-perjodu mit-813 sat-818, ir-residenza temporanja tal-Kaliff al-Ma'mun effettivament għamlet lil Merv il-belt kapitali tad-dinja Musulmana u enfasizzat l-importanza tagħha għall-Abbasidi. Dixxendent tal-profeta Iżlamiku Muħammed, it-Tmien Imam tal-Iżlam Xigħa, Ali ar-Ridha mar lejn Merv u għex hemmhekk għal diversi snin. Merv saret ukoll iċ-ċentru ta' moviment Neo-Mażdakita ewlieni tas-seklu 8 mmexxi minn al-Muqanna, il-"Profeta bil-Velu", li kellu bosta segwaċi wara li sostna li kien inkarnazzjoni ta' Alla u eredi ta' Abu Muslim; il-Khurramiyya ispirata minnu, ippersistiet f'Merv sas-seklu 12.

Matul dan il-perjodu Merv, bħala Samarkanda u Bukhara, iffunzjonat bħala waħda mill-bliet il-kbar tal-istudji Musulmani; l-istoriku magħruf Yaqut (1179-1229) studja fil-librerija tagħha. Merv ipproduċiet għadd ta' studjużi f'diversi oqsma tal-għarfien, fosthom id-dritt Iżlamiku, hadith, l-istorja, u l-letteratura. Diversi studjużi ngħataw l-isem ta' "Marwazi" (المروزي) li jindika li kienu ġejjin minn Merv. Il-belt baqa' jkollha komunità sostanzjali ta' Kristjani. Fl-1009, l-Arċisqof ta' Merv bagħat ittra lill-Patriarka ta' Bagdad u staqsa biex il-Keraiti jitħallew isumu inqas minn Krisjtani Nestorjani oħra.[29] Il-poliedriku Persjan il-kbir Omar Khayyam, fost oħrajn, qatta' diversi snin jaħdem fl-osservatorju f'Merv. Bħalma kiteb il-ġeografu u l-vjaġġatur Persjan al-Istakhri dwar Merv: "Mill-pajjiżi kollha tal-Iran, dawn in-nies kienu magħrufa għat-talenti u għall-edukazzjoni tagħhom". Yaqut al-Hamawi semma saħansitra 10 libreriji kbar f'Merv, inkluż waħda fi ħdan moskea ewlenija li kellha 12,000 volum.

Meta l-Kaliffat iddgħajjef, il-ġeneral Persjan Tahir bin al-Husayn u d-dinastija tiegħu tat-Taħaridi ssostitwew l-Għarab f'Merv fit-821. It-Taħaridi mexxew f'Merv mit-821 sat-873, segwiti mis-Saffaridi, mis-Samanidi u iktar 'il quddiem mill-Gażnavidi.[30]

Turkmeni f'Merv

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Il-Mawżolew tas-Sultan Sanjar minn ġewwa.

Fl-1037, is-Seljuk Turkmeni, klan ta' Torok Oghuz mill-isteppi fil-Lvant tal-Baħar ta' Aral, paċifikament ħakmu lil Merv taħt it-tmexxija ta' Tugril — is-sultan Gażnavida Mas'ud I ma kienx popolari fil-belt. Ħu Tugril, Chaghri, baqa' f'Merv filwaqt li d-dominji tas-Seljuk kibru u saru jinkludu l-bqija ta' Khurasan u l-Iran, u sussegwentement Merv saret belt favorita tas-slaten Seljuk. Chaghri, ibnu Alp Arslan (li saltan mill-1063 sal-1072) u l-proneputi tiegħu Ahmad Sanjar (li saltan mill-1118 sal-1157) indifnu f'Merv; dan tal-aħħar fil-Qabar ta' Ahmad Sanjar.[31]

Qrib it-tmiem tas-seklu 11, Merv saret il-belt kapitali tal-Lvant tal-istat maqsum tas-Seljuk. Madankollu, mill-1118, saret il-belt kapitali tal-imperu kollu.[32] Matul dan il-perjodu, Merv kibret — il-ġeografi Għarab u Persjani sejħulha "omm id-dinja", il-"post fejn kienu jiltaqgħu l-kbar u ż-żgħar", il-"belt ewlenija ta' Khurasan" u l-"belt kapitali tad-dinja Iżlamika tal-Lvant". Sorsi bil-miktub isemmu wkoll librerija u madrasa kbira stabbilita minn Nizam al-Mulk, il-viżier tal-imperu tas-Seljuk, kif ukoll bosta istituzzjonijiet kulturali ewlenin oħra. Barra minn hekk, Merv kellha suq li ġie deskritt bħala "l-aqwa wieħed mill-belt ewlenin tal-Iran u ta' Khurasan".[33]

It-tmexxija ta' Sanjar, mifnija bil-kunflitt tal-Kara-Kitaj u l-Kwarażmjani, intemmet fl-1153 meta nomadi Turkmeni lil hinn minn Amu Darya serqu r-rikkezzi tal-belt. Sussegwentement, Merv għaddiet minn id għall-oħra bejn il-Kwarażmjani ta' Khiva, in-nomadi Turkmeni, u l-Guridi. Skont Tertius Chandler, sal-1150 Merv kienet saret l-ikbar belt fid-dinja, b'popolazzjoni ta' 200,000 ruħ.[34] Sal-1210, jaf kellha saħansitra 500,000 resident, u b'hekk ippreċediet metropoli Medjevali bħala Kostantinopli u Bagdad.[35][36]

Mongoli f'Merv

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Affresk tal-Battalja ta' Merv tal-1510 bejn Shah Ismail I u l-Khan Użbek Muhammad Shaybani; tinsab fil-Palazz ta' Chehel Sotoun f'Isfahan, l-Iran.

Fl-1221, Merv fetħet il-bibien tagħha għal Tolui, iben Genghis Khan, kap tal-Mongoli. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-abitanti jingħad li nqatlu b'mod kiefer. L-istoriku Għarbi Ibn al-Athir iddeskriva l-qatla abbażi tar-rakkont tar-refuġjati ta' Merv:

Genghis Khan poġġa fuq tron tad-deheb u ordna li t-truppi li nħatfu jinġabu quddiemu, u ġew ġustizzjati quddiem il-kotra mbikkma. Imbagħad, fir-rigward tan-nies ordinarji, isseparaw lill-irġiel, lin-nisa, lit-tfal u l-pussessi. Kien jum memorabbli ta' twerżiq, biki u tnewwiħ. Huma ħadu lill-għonja u sawtuhom u ttorturawhom b'kull xorta ta' krudeltà sabiex isibu l-ġid tagħhom ... Imbagħad taw in-nar lill-belt u ħarqu il-qabar tas-Sultan Sanjar u qalgħu l-qabar tiegħu bit-tama li jsibu xi flus. Huma qalu, "Dawn in-nies irreżistewna", u għalhekk qatluhom kollha. Genghis Khan ordna li l-mejtin jingħaddu u b'kollox kien hemm madwar 700,000 katavru. (traduzzjoni mhux uffiċjali)[7]

Storiku Persjan, Juvayni, semma li l-mejtin kienu iktar minn 1,300,000.[37] Kull suldat individwali tal-armata ħakkiema "kellu jieħu ħsieb il-ġustizzjar ta' bejn 300-400 persuna". Bosta minn dawk is-suldati kienu mibgħuta minn Sarakhs li, minħabba li Merv kienet għadu tagħhom, "kompliet iżżid il-ħruxija tal-Mongoli fil-qtil tal-Musulmani".[38] Kważi l-popolazzjoni kollha ta' Merv, u r-refuġjati li waslu minn inħawi oħra tal-Imperu Kwarażmjan, inqatlu lkoll, u b'hekk kienet waħda mill-iżjed ħakmiet imdemmija ta' belt fl-istorja tad-dinja.[39]

Xi skavi żvelaw il-kostruzzjoni drastika mill-ġdid tal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-belt wara l-qerda tagħhom, iżda l-prosperità tal-belt kienet għamlet żmienha. L-invażjoni tal-Mongoli wasslet għad-deklin ta' Merv u ta' ċentri ewlenin oħra għal iktar minn seklu. Wara l-ħakma tal-Mongoli, Merv saret parti mill-Ilkanat, u r-rikkezzi tagħha ġew misruqa b'mod konsistenti mill-Kanat taċ-Ċagataj. Fl-ewwel parti tas-seklu 14, il-belt saret is-sede tal-arċiveskovat Kristjan tal-Knisja tal-Lvant taħt it-tmexxija tal-Kartidi, il-vassalli tal-Ilkanidi. Sal-1380 Merv saret parti mill-Imperu ta' Timur (Tamerlan).[40]

Użbeki f'Merv u l-qerda finali

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Fl-1505, l-Użbeki okkupaw lil Merv; ħames snin wara, Shah Ismail, il-fundatur tad-dinastija tas-Safavidi tal-Iran, keċċihom. F'dan il-perjodu, nobbli Persjan irrestawra diga kbira (is-"Soltanbent") fix-xmara Murghab, u l-insedjament li kiber fl-art irrigata sar magħruf bħala Baýramaly, kif imsemmi f'xi testi tas-seklu 19.

Wara l-mewt tiegħu, ir-reġjun sar dipendenza ta' Khiva, iżda fl-1593 Merv inħakmet minn Abdullah il-Khan ta' Bukhara.[41] Il-belt f'qasir żmien inħakmet minn Shah Abbas, u gvernatur tas-Safavidi, Biktash Khan Ustajlu, inħatar għall-governorat fl-1600. Fl-1608, Mihrab Khan Qajar sar gvernatur, u beda żewġ sekli ta' governorat tal-Qajar fuq Merv.[42] Mill-1715, l-elit tal-Qajar bdew jasserixxu l-indipendenza ta' Merv mill-gvern tas-Safavidi, iżda fi żmien deċennju l-oażi ma baqgħetx sigura iktar minħabba l-attakki mit-Tatari u mit-Turkmeni. Nader Shah nieda kampanji militari li xejnu l-attakki tat-Turkmeni u tat-Tatari u rrestawra s-sistema tal-irrigazzjoni ta' Merv. Wara l-mewt ta' Nader Shah, il-Qajar lokali fir-reġjun iddikjaraw l-indipendenza u ffurmaw il-Prinċipat Qajari ta' Merv. Fl-1785, l-emir Mangita ta' Bukhara, Shah Murad, attakka l-belt u qatel lill-mexxej, Bayram 'Ali Khan Qajar. Ftit snin wara, fl-1788 u fl-1789, Shah Murad qered il-belt għalkollox, kisser id-digi, u ħalla ħerba warajh.[43]

Il-popolazzjoni kollha tal-belt u tal-oażi tal-madwar ta' xi 100,000 ruħ imbagħad ġiet deportata f'diversi stadji lejn l-oażi ta' Bukhara u r-reġjun ta' Samarkanda fil-Wied ta' Zarafshan. Peress li kienu l-aħħar Musulmani Xigħa li kienu jitkellmu bil-Persjan, in-nies deportati rreżistew l-assimilazzjoni fil-popolazzjoni Sunnita ta' Bukhara u ta' Samarkanda, minkejja l-lingwa Persjana komuni li kellhom bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjoni nattiva. Dawn il-Marvis kienu għadhom jeżistu sal-2016 — iċ-ċensimenti Sovjetiċi elenkawhom bħala "Iranjani" fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. Dawn jgħixu f'Samarkanda u f'Bukhara u fl-inħawi ta' bejn dawn il-bliet tul ix-xmara Zarafshan. Dawn huma elenkati bħala nies li jitkellmu l-Persjan iżda jingħaddu separatament mit-Taġiki lokali minħabba r-reliġjon Xigħa tagħhom u peress li żammew l-identità tal-qedem tagħhom minn Merv.[44]

Id-Daħla ta' Bure f'Merv tal-qedem.

It-tmun ta' Merv għadda għand il-Khanat ta' Khiva fl-1823. Sir Alexander Burnes żar il-pajjiż fl-1832. Għall-ħabta ta' dak iż-żmien, il-Persjani obbligaw it-Turkmeni ta' Tekke, li dak iż-żmien kienu jgħixu tul ix-xmara Tejen, biex jemigraw lejn it-Tramuntana. Khiva kkontestat l-avvanz tagħhom, iżda lejn l-1856, irnexxielhom isiru setgħa sovrana fil-pajjiż, u baqgħu hekk sal-okkupazzjoni tal-oażi mir-Russi fl-1884.

Sal-1868, ir-Russi kienu ħakmu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Asja Ċentrali għajr it-Turkmenistan. Ir-Russi qorbu lejn din iż-żona mill-Kaspju, u fl-1881 ħakmu lil Geok Tepe. Uffiċjali jismu Alikhanov ħataf lil Merv mingħajr tixrid tad-demm. Dan kien Musulman mill-Kawkażu u kien laħaq il-grad ta' maġġur fis-servizz Russu. Wara li ġġieled ma' uffiċjal superjuri, il-grad tiegħu tnaqqas sew u sal-1882 reġa' laħaq sa logutenent. Fl-1882, huwa daħal f'Merv billi sostna li kien merkant Russu u nnegozja ftehim kummerċjali. Sadanittant, xi aġenti Russi użaw firxa ta' tixħim u theddidiet biex jiżviluppaw partit favur ir-Russi fl-inħawi. Ir-Russi okkupaw l-oażi ta' Tejen, tmien mili lejn il-Punent. Fl-1884, Alikhanov daħal f'Merv liebes uniformi ta' uffiċjal Russu, flimkien ma' diversi Turkmeni notevoli li kien xtara. Huwa sostna li t-truppi f'Tejen kienu biss turija żgħira ta' forza ferm ikbar u li l-awtonomija lokali kienet se tiġi rrispettata. Ladarba raw li ma kien hemm l-ebda tama ta' appoġġ mill-Persja jew mir-Renju Unit, l-anzjani fit-tmun ċedew. Il-mossa Russa li jmiss kienet li marru lejn in-Nofsinhar lejn Herat. Sal-1888, il-belt ġiet abbandunata għalkollox.[45]

Viċirè futur tal-Indja Brittanika, George Curzon, żar il-fdalijiet ta' Merv fl-1888. Iktar 'il quddiem huwa kiteb: "F'nofs żona mħarbta għalkollox fis-selvaġġ, kien hemm fdalijiet tal-brikks u tat-tafal qed jaqgħu biċċiet, kif ukoll bosta ħitan, torrijiet, swar u koppli, estiżi f'konfużjoni sħiħa sax-xefaq, li fakkruna li konna fiċ-ċentru ta' kobor tal-qedem".[7]

Sit ta' Wirt Dinji

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Il-Park Storiku u Kulturali Statali ta' Merv tal-Qedem ġie ddeżinjat bħala Sit ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-1999.[14]

Il-valur universali straordinarju tas-sit ġie rrikonoxxut abbażi ta' żewġ kriterji tal-għażla tal-UNESCO: il-kriterju (ii) "Wirja ta' skambju importanti ta' valuri umani, tul perjodu ta' żmien jew fi ħdan żona kulturali fid-dinja, dwar l-iżviluppi fl-arkitettura jew it-teknoloġija, l-arti monumentali, l-ippjanar tal-bliet jew id-disinn tal-pajsaġġ"; u l-kriterju (iii) "Xhieda unika jew minn tal-inqas eċċezzjonali ta' tradizzjoni kulturali jew ta' ċivilizzazzjoni li għadha ħajja jew li għebet".[14]

Xi skavi ta' esplorazzjoni f'Merv twettqu fl-1885[46] mill-ġeneral Russu A.V. Komarov, il-gvernatur tal-oblast Trans-Kaspjan mill-1883 sal-1889. Komarov qabbad lit-truppi Ksaristi tiegħu bħala skavaturi u ppubblika l-kollezzjoni tiegħu ta' artefatti u muniti mill-inħawi fl-1900 bħallikieku kienu trofej.[47] Valentin Alekseevich Zhukovsky tal-Kummissjoni Arkeoloġika Imperjali mexxa l-ewwel skavi professjonali għalkollox fl-1890 u ppubblika s-sejbiet fl-1894. Il-ġeologu Raphael Pumpelly u l-arkeologu Ġermaniż Hubert Schmidt mexxew l-iskavi tal-Istitut Amerikan ta' Carnegie.[48]

Merv hija l-qalba tal-Proġett ta' Merv tal-Qedem (bl-Ingliż: Ancient Merv Project), li inizjalment kien imsejjaħ il-Proġett Internazzjonali ta' Merv. Mill-1992 sas-sena 2000, tim konġunt ta' arkeologi mit-Turkmenistan u mir-Renju Unit għamlu skoperti notevoli. Fl-2001, l-Istitut tal-Arkeoloġija tal-Kulleġġ Universitarju ta' Londra u l-awtoritajiet Turkmeni bdew kollaborazzjoni ġdida. Dan il-Proġett ta' Merv tal-Qedem jieħu ħsieb il-kwistjonijiet kumplessi marbuta mal-konservazzjoni u mal-ġestjoni tas-sit, filwaqt li jkompli jtejjeb il-fehim tas-sit permezz tar-riċerka arkeoloġika u d-disseminazzjoni tar-riżultati tal-ħidma lill-usa' udjenza possibbli.[49]

Organizzazzjoni tal-fdalijiet

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Merv tikkonsisti minn għadd ta' bliet diskreti mdawra bil-ħitan difensivi, qrib ħafna ta' xulxin, li nbnew fuq art mhux abitata minn bennejja ta' eri differenti, li ntużaw u mbagħad ġew abbandunati u qatt ma reġgħu nbnew. Erba' bliet imdawrin bil-ħitan jikkorrispondu għall-perjodi ewlenin ta' importanza ta' Merv: l-eqdem, Erk Gala, tikkorrispondi għal Merv taħt l-Akemenidi, li hija wkoll l-iżgħar mit-tlett ibliet. Gäwürgala (magħrufa wkoll bħala Gyaur Gala), li tinsab madwar Erk Gala, tinkludi l-metropoli Ellenistiċi u Sassanidi u kienet isservi wkoll bħala subborg industrijali tal-belt taħt l-Abbasidi u s-Seljuk, Soltangala — l-ikbar mit-tlett ibliet. Il-belt iżgħar ta' taħt Timur ġiet stabbilita ftit iktar 'il bogħod lejn in-Nofsinhar u issa tissejjaħ Abdyllahangala. Hemm binjiet oħra tal-qedem mifruxa bejn dawn l-erbat ibliet; is-siti kollha huma ppreservati fil-Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Merv tal-Qedem, ftit fit-Tramuntana tal-villaġġ modern ta' Baýramaly u 30 kilometru (19-il mil) fil-Lvant tal-belt kbira ta' Mary mibnija mis-Sovjetiċi.[50]

L-eqdem parti ta' Merv, magħrufa bħala Erk Gala.

Erk Gala (mill-Persjan, li tfisser "il-forti-ċittadella") hija l-eqdem parti tal-belt tal-kumpless ta' Merv. Mibnija fis-seklu 7 Q.K., Erk Gala nbniet bħala fortizza bi stil Persjan għall-kontroll tal-oażi tul ix-xmara Murghab. Il-fortizza ta' Erk Gala iktar 'il quddiem intużat bħala akropoli għall-belt Ellenistika u mbagħad għall-Ark tal-belt Iżlamika.[51]

L-istabbiliment ta' Gäwürgala (terminu bit-Turkmen mit-terminu Persjan "Gabr Qala" li jfisser "Fortizza taż-Żoroastrijani") seħħ fil-bidu tal-era Ellenistika taħt it-tmexxija tar-Re Antiochus I tas-Selewċidi. Il-belt kienet abitata b'mod kontinwu taħt sensiela ta' mexxejja Ellenistiċi, mill-Partiċi, u mbagħad mis-Sassanidi, li għamluha l-belt kapitali ta' satrapija. Gäwürgala kienet il-belt kapitali tal-provinċja ta' Khurasan tal-Kaliffat Umayyad u l-importanza tagħha kibret meta Khurasan saret l-iżjed parti Musulmana leali tad-dinja Iranjana matul l-ewwel żewġ sekli tal-Iżlam.[52]

L-iżjed strutturi viżibbli li għad fadal ta' Gäwürgala huma l-istrutturi difensivi tagħha. Tliet ħitan difensivi, mibnija fuq xulxin, għadhom viżibbli. Ħajt li nbnena taħt is-Selewċidi, gradwat fuq ġewwa u dritt fuq barra, jifforma pjattaforma għat-tieni ħajt li huwa ferm ikbar, u li nbena mill-brikks tat-tajn u huwa mtarraġ fuq ġewwa. L-għamla ta' dan il-ħajt huwa bħal ta' fortizzi Ellenistiċi oħra li nstabu fl-Anatolja, għalkemm dan huwa uniku għaliex huwa magħmul bil-brikks tat-tajn minflok bil-ġebel. It-tielet ħajt x'aktarx inbena taħt is-Sassanidi bi brikks ferm ikbar mit-tieni ħajt. Madwar il-ħajt instabu varjetà ta' bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar, b'mod partikolari bċejjeċ Partiċi. Id-daqs ta' dawn il-fortifikazzjonijiet huwa evidenza tal-importanza ta' Merv matul l-era pre-Iżlamika; l-ebda fortifikazzjoni pre-Iżlamika ta' daqs simili ma nstabet xi mkien fid-Deżert ta' Karakum. Gäwürgala hija importanti wkoll għall-ammont kbir ta' evidenza numismatika li ġiet żvelata; sensiela kontinwa ta' muniti Sassanidi nstabu hawnhekk, li jistgħu jagħtu ħjiel dwar l-istabbiltà politika straordinarja ta' dan il-perjodu. Anke wara l-istabbiliment ta' Soltangala minn Abu Muslim fil-bidu tad-dinastija tal-Abbasidi, Gäwürgala persistiet bħala subborg tal-belt ikbar ta' Soltangala. F'Gäwürgala hemm konċentrazzjoni ta' bosta binjiet "industrijali" tal-era tal-Abbasidi: fran għall-bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar, postijiet fejn kien jinħadem l-azzar, il-ħadid u r-ram, eċċ. Forn ippreservat tajjeb ħafna għall-bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar għandu riffieda bi ħnejja u bil-volti li għadha intatta kif ukoll foss kwadru fejn kien jitqabbad in-nar. Gäwürgala milli jidher kienet tintuża għall-kwartieri tal-artiġjani matul il-perjodi tal-Abbasidi u ta' qabel is-Seljuk.[52]

Stabbiliment tas-seklu 7 fejn kien jinżamm is-silġ għall-preservazzjoni tal-ikel.

Soltangala (minn "Sultan Qala", li tfisser il-fortizza tas-sultan) hija bil-bosta l-ikbar mill-bliet ta' Merv. Sors testwali jistabbilixxu li kien Abu Muslim, il-mexxej tar-ribelljoni tal-Abbasidi, li ssimbolizza l-bidu tal-Kaliffat il-ġdid billi kkummissjona strutturi monumentali lejn il-Punent tal-ħitan ta' Gäwürgala, f'dik li mbagħad saret magħrufa bħala Soltangala.[53] Iż-żona malajr ġiet imdawra bil-ħitan u saret il-qalba ta' Merv Medjevali; il-bosta köshks (binjiet iffortifikati) tal-era tal-Abbasidi li ġew skoperti f'Soltangala u fil-madwar juru li kien hemm sekli sħaħ ta' prosperità. Il-Kushks (mill-Persjan, Kushk, jiġifieri "paviljun" jew "kjosk"), li jirrappreżentaw il-fdalijiet ewlenin ta' Merz taħt l-Abbasidi, huma tip ta' binja unika fl-Asja Ċentrali ta' dan il-perjodu. Kienu tip ta' palazzi semifortifikati fuq żewġ sulari, b'ħitan qishom bil-pizzi li kienu jagħtuhom dehra unika u li tispikka, li kienu jintużaw bħala r-residenzi tal-elit ta' Merv. It-tieni sular ta' dawn l-istrutturi kellu l-kwartieri tal-għajxioen, filwaqt li l-ewwel sular x'aktarx li kien jintuża għall-ħżin. Mas-soqfa kien ikun hemm parapetti, li spiss kienu jintużaw ukoll bħala kwartieri tal-għajxien. L-ikbar kushk ta' Merv u l-iktar wieħed ippreservat tajjeb tal-era tal-Abbasidi huwa magħruf bħala l-fortizza l-kbira ta' Kyz Gala (li bit-Turkmen tfisser "fortizza ewlenija"), li tinsab eżatt 'il barra mill-ħajt tal-Punent ta' Soltangala; din l-istruttura kien fiha 17-il kamra madwar bitħa ċentrali. Fil-qrib hemm il-fortizza ż-żgħira ta' Kyz Gala li kellha ħitan tassew ħoxnin, b'pizzi fondi, kif ukoll diversi garigori taraġ fuq ġewwa li kienu jwasslu sal-kwartieri tal-għajxien fuq it-tieni sular. Il-kushks kollha ta' Merv jinsab fi stati prekarji ta' preservazzjoni.[54]

Madankollu, l-iżjed binjiet importanti ta' Soltangala huma l-kostruzzjonijiet tas-Seljuk. Il-ħakma ta' Merv fl-1037 mill-mexxej Toghrul tas-Seljuk reġgħet tat il-ħajja lill-belt; taħt id-dixxendenti tiegħu, speċjalment Sanjar, li għamilha r-residenza tiegħu, Merv sabet ruħha fiċ-ċentru ta' imperu multikulturali kbir.[55]

Il-fortizza ż-żgħira ta' Kyz Kala.

Evidenza ta' din il-prosperità tinstab madwar Soltangala. Ħafna mill-binjiet huma kkonċentrati fiċ-ċittadella ta' Soltangala, ix-Shahryar Ark (mill-Persjan, li tfisser "iċ-ċittadella tas-sovran"), li tinsab fil-Lvant. Fiċ-ċentru tax-Sharhryar Ark hemm il-palazz tas-Seljuk, li x'aktarx inbena minn Sanjar. Il-ħitan tal-brikks tat-tajn li għadhom jeżistu jwasslu għall-konklużjoni li dan il-palazz, minkejja li huwa relattivament żgħir, kien magħmul minn kmamar għoljin sular madwar bitħa interna, flimkien ma' erba' iwan assjali fid-daħla ta' kull naħa. Inħawi baxxi fil-qrib donnhom jindikaw li kien hemm ġnien kbir, li kien jinkludi lag artifiċjali; ġonna simili nstabu f'palazzi oħra tal-Asja Ċentrali. Il-fdalijiet kollha tat-tiżjin fuq ġewwa jew fuq barra ntilfu bl-erożjoni jew insterqu.[56]

Struttura notevoli oħra tas-Seljuk fi ħdan ix-Shahryar Ark hija l-kepderihana (mill-Persjan, "Kaftar Khaneh" jew "barumbara"). Din il-binja misterjuża, fost l-iktar ippreservati tajjeb fl-oażi kollha ta' Merv, tinkludi kamra twila u dejqa waħda mingħajr twieqi b'bosta niċeċ mal-ħitan. Xi sorsi jemmnu li l-kepter khana (hemm iktar f'inħawi oħra f'Merv u fl-Asja Ċentrali) kienet barumbara li kienet tintuża għat-trobbija tal-ħamiem, sabiex jinġabar il-ħmieġ tagħhom, li kien jintuża fit-tkabbir tal-bettieħ li tant kienet famuża għalih Merv. Oħrajn isostnu li l-kepderihanas kienu libreriji jew teżori, minħabba l-pożizzjoni tagħhom fl-inħawi bi status għoli qrib strutturi importanti.[57]

L-iżjed struttura ppreservata tajjeb f'Merv huwa l-mawżolew tas-seklu 12 tas-sultan Sanjar, li tinsab ukoll fis-Sultan Gala. Huwa l-ikbar wieħed fost il-mawżolej tas-Seljuk u huwa wkoll l-ewwel kumpless datat ta' moskea u mawżolew, xi ħaġa li iktar 'il quddiem saret komuni. Għandu għamla kwadra ta' 27 metru (89 pied) fuq kull naħa, b'żewġ daħliet fuq naħat opposti; koppla ċentrali kbira mirfuda minn sistema ottagonali ta' riffieda u ħnejjiet tgħattih fuq ġewwa (Ettinghausen, 270). Minn barra l-koppla kellha lewn ikħal fl-aħdar, u minħabba l-għoli tagħha kienet imponenti; kien jingħad li l-karovani malli kienu joqorbu setgħu jaraw il-mawżolew minn bogħod ta' jum ta' vvjaġġar mill-belt. It-tiżjin tal-mawżolew, bi stil bikri tipiku tas-Seljuk, kien konservattiv, u fuq ġewwa kellu xogħol bl-istukko filwaqt li fuq barra kellu tiżjin ġeometriku bil-brikks, li issa ntilef kważi għalkollox. Apparti t-tiżjin fuq barra li ġie "rikostruwit" reċentement, il-mawżolew kważi intatt jinsab kif kien fis-seklu 12.[58]

Il-parti ta' barra tal-ħajt tan-Nofsinhar ta' Kepderihana.

Sensiela aħħarija ta' fdalijiet tas-Seljuk huma l-ħitan ta' Soltangala. Dawn il-fortifikazzjonijiet, li fil-biċċa l-kbira għadhom jeżistu, bdew bħala strutturi tal-brikks tat-tajn għoljin bejn tmien metri u disa' metri (26-30 pied), u fi ħdanhom kien hemm kompartimenti li minnhom id-difensuri setgħu jisparaw il-vleġeġ lejn l-għadu. Kien hemm torrijiet b'għamla ta' nagħla kull 15 sa 35 metru (49 sa 115-il pied). Madankollu, dawn il-ħitan ma kinux wisq effettivi għaliex ma kellhomx ħxuna adegwata biżżejjed biex jifilħu għat-tiri bil-katapulti u b'artillerija oħra. Sa nofs is-seklu 12, il-galleriji ġew mimlija bir-radam, u l-ħitan ġew imsaħħa ferm. Ħajt iżgħar sekondarju nbena quddiem il-ħajt prinċipali ta' Soltangala, u finalment is-subborgi tal-belt Medjevali — magħrufa llum il-ġurnata bħala Isgendergala — kienu mdawra b'ħajt oħxon ħames metri (16-il pied). It-tliet ħitan irreżistew lill-armata tal-Mongoli mill-inqas għal waħda mill-offensivi tagħha, qabel ma l-belt kellha ċċedi fl-1221.[59]

Ħafna bċejjeċ taċ-ċeramika mill-eri tal-Abbasidi u tas-Seljuk ġew irkuprati, primarjament minn Gäwürgala, il-ħitan tal-belt ta' Soltangala, u x-Shahryar Ark. Il-bċejjeċ ta' Gäwürgala primarjament kienu tal-aħħar tal-era tal-Abbasidi u kienu jikkonsistu l-iktar minn skutelli ħomor b'disinni ġeometriċi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar irkuprati mill-ħitan ta' Sultan Gala huma bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar sofor u ħodor tas-sekli 11 u 12, simili għall-istili kontemporanji komuni f'Nishapur. Skutelli suwed u kaħlanija fl-aħdar ġew skoperti fil-palazz ta' Shahryar Ark, kif ukoll depożitu ta' bċejjeċ tal-fuħħar bi stil tal-Mongoli, x'aktarx b'rabta mal-istabbiliment mill-ġdid tal-belt taħt l-Ilkhan li ma tantx kellha suċċess. Minn dik l-era wkoll hija maskra taċ-ċeramika għat-tiżjin tal-ħitan li nstabet qalb il-fdalijiet ta' struttura li b'mod kontroversjali hemm min isostni li kienet tempju Buddista li nbena mill-Mongoli fis-subborgi tan-Nofsinhar ta' Sultan Gala.[60]

Shaim Kala nbniet fis-seklu 7 W.K. Shaim Kala kienet belt imdawra bil-ħitan li kienet maħsuba biex jiġi evitat l-iffollar żejjed, u biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib reliġjuż u politiku tal-popli l-ġodda li kienu jaslu f'Merv.[14]

Abdyllahangala

[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]

Abdyllahangala hija l-belt tal-era ta' Timur wara l-Medju Evu li tinsab lejn in-Nofsinhar tal-kumpless ewlieni.[14]

Illum il-ġurnata, is-sit ta' Merv tal-qedem jinsab qrib il-belt ta' Baýramali tal-velayat ta' Mary, it-Turkmenistan. Din il-belt moderna hija s-sede tad-Distrett ta' Baýramaly fil-Provinċja ta' Mary. Is-sit jinsab madwar 27 km fil-Lvant tal-belt kapitali provinċjali ta' Mary. Fl-2009 kien stmat li l-popolazzjoni tagħha kienet tlaħħaq it-88,486 ruħ (żieda sew mit-43,824 ruħ fiċ-ċensiment tal-1989).[61]

L-abitanti preżenti tal-oażi huma primarjament Turkmeni tat-tribù tat-Teke u xi Persjani jew Taġikistani. Hemm minoranzi relattivament kbar ta' Beluch u ta' Brahui fl-oażi ta' Merv ukoll.[62]

Muniti ta' Hormizd I Kushanshah izzekkati f'Merv.

Sistema elaborata ta' kanali mħaffra mix-xmara Murghab jisqu l-oażi ta' Merv li hija rinomata fil-Lvant kollu għall-art għammiela tagħha. Kull xorta ta' ċereali u bosta frott jikbru b'abbundanza kbira, eż. qamħ, millieġ, xgħir u bettieħ, kif ukoll ross u qoton. Iż-żrieragħ tal-qoton minn saffi arkeoloġiċi li jmorru lura saħansitra għas-seklu 5 huma l-ewwel indikazzjoni li t-tessuti tal-qoton diġà kienu komponent ekonomiku importanti tal-belt taħt is-Sassanidi. Id-dud tal-ħarir kien jitnissel fil-belt. It-Turkmeni għandhom nisel famuż ta' żwiemel (iż-żiemel Turkmen) u jrabbu wkoll iġmla, nagħaġ, ħmir u bgħula. It-Turkmeni jaħdmu wkoll il-fidda u l-armaturi. Skoperta tas-snin 90 tas-seklu 20 kienet struttura tas-sekli 9-10 fejn kien jiġi prodott l-azzar, li tikkonferma r-rapporti Iżlamiċi tal-istudjuż Iżlamiku al-Kindi (801-866 W.K.). Huwa kien irrefera li fir-reġjun ta' Khorasan kien jiġi prodott l-azzar. Dan kien isir permezz ta' proċess ta' kofużjoni fejn il-ħadid fondut u l-ħadid ferrobattut jiddewbu flimkien.[63][64]

L-oażi ta' Merv oasis fuq mappa tal-1913.

L-oażi ta' Merv tinsab max-xmara Murghab li tnixxi mill-Afganistan, fit-tarf tan-Nofsinhar tad-Deżert ta' Karakum, bil-koordinati 37°30’N u 62°E, madwar 230 mil (370 km) fit-Tramuntana ta' Herat, u 280 mil (450 km) fin-Nofsinhar ta' Khiva. L-erja tagħha hija ta' madwar 1,900 mil kwadru (4,900 km2). Il-katina kbira ta' muntanji, li bl-ismijiet ta' Paropamisade u Kush Indù, testendi mill-Baħar Kaspju sal-Muntanji Pamir hija interrotta xi 180 mil (290 km) fin-Nofsinhar ta' Merv. F'din l-interruzzjoni jew qribha jnixxu b'mod parallel ix-xmajjar Tejen u Murghab, sa ma jintilfu fid-Deżert ta' Karakum. B'hekk, lil Merv jagħmluha qisha torri tal-għassa tad-daħla lejn l-Afganistan fil-Majjistral u fl-istess waqt hija punt ta' waqfien bejn il-Grigal tal-Persja u l-istati ta' Bukhara u ta' Samarkanda fl-Użbekistan.[65]

Merv tinsab b'mod vantaġġuż fid-delta fuq ġewwa tax-xmara Murghab, li tnixxi mis-sors tagħha fil-Kush Indù fit-Tramuntana mid-Deżert ta' Karakum. Ir-reġjun tad-delta tax-xmara Murghab, magħrufa mill-Griegi bħala Marġjana, jagħti żewġ vantaġġi distinti lil Merv: l-ewwel nett, jipprovdi rotta faċli mix-Xlokk għall-Majjistral, mill-artijiet għoljin Afgani sal-artijiet baxxi ta' Karakum, il-wied ta' Amu Darya u Khwarezm. It-tieni, id-delta tax-xmara Murghab, peress li hija żona kbira misqija sew f'nofs il-Karakum niexef, isservi bħala punt ta' waqfien naturali għar-rotot mill-Majjistral tal-Iran lejn it-Toroq tal-Ħarir. Id-delta, u għaldaqstant Merv, tinsab f'salib it-toroq ta' dawn iż-żewġ rotot: ir-rotta mill-Majjistral sax-Xlokk lejn Herat u Balkh (sal-Indus u lil hinn) u r-rotta mil-Lbiċ sal-Grigal minn Tus u Nishapur sa Bukhara u Samarkanda.[66]

Dan il-post kien punt ta' waqfien tul ir-Rotot tal-Ħarir fi żmien id-dinastija Han. Hawnhekk il-merkanti setgħu jikkummerċjalizzaw iż-żwiemel jew l-iġmla mnisslin tagħhom fil-belt qalb l-oażi ta' Merv.[67]

Merv għandha klima niexfa u sħun fis-sajf u kiesħa fix-xitwa. Is-sħana tas-sajf hija oppressiva. Ir-riħ iġib miegħu sħabiet ta' trab fin li jimla l-arja, u jagħmilha opaka, u kważi joskura x-xemx ta' nofsinhar. Dawn is-sħabiet jagħmluha diffiċli biex wieħed ikun jista' jieħu n-nifs. Fix-xitwa l-klima tkun pjaċevoli. Qajla tinżel il-borra, u meta tinżel, iddub mill-ewwel. Il-preċipitazzjoni annwali qajla taqbeż il-125 mm (4.9 pulzier), u spiss ma tinżilx xita minn Ġunju sa Ottubru. Fis-sajf it-temperaturi jistgħu jilħqu sa 45 °C (113 °F), filwaqt li fix-xitwa jistgħu jinżlu saħansitra sa −7 °C (19 °F). It-temperatura medja fis-sena tkun 16 °C (61 °F).

Relazzjonijiet internazzjonali

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Ġemellaġġi

[immodifika | immodifika s-sors]

Merv hija ġemellata ma':

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