13 May incident

13 May Incident Peristiwa 13 Mei ڤريستيوا 13 مي 五一三事件 13 மே சம்பவம்
Aftermath of the riots
Date	13 May 1969; 55 years ago (1969-05-13)
Location	Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Caused by	Results of the 1969 Malaysian general election, when the ruling Alliance Party lost seats to the Chinese majority Democratic Action Party and Parti Gerakan.
Methods	Widespread rioting, looting, assault, arson, protests, property damage, murder
Resulted in	Declaration of a state of emergency by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Suspension of Parliament. Temporary establishment of National Operations Council. Resignation of Tunku Abdul Rahman as Prime Minister. Implementation of Rukun Negara. Implementation of New Economic Policy. Increased racial tensions between the ethnic groups of the country. Eventual formation of Barisan Nasional.
Parties
UMNO, Malay supporters and civilians Chinese and Indian civilians Royal Malaysia Police Federal Reserve Unit General Operations Force Malaysian Army Royal Malay Regiment
Lead figures
Tunku Abdul Rahman Mohamed Salleh Ismael Tunku Osman
Casualties and losses
25 killed (official figure, disputed) 143 killed (official figure, disputed) Unknown

The 13 May incident was an episode of Sino-Malay sectarian violence that took place in Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, on 13 May 1969. The riot occurred in the aftermath of the 1969 Malaysian general election when opposition parties such as the Democratic Action Party and Gerakan made gains at the expense of the ruling coalition, the Alliance Party.

Official reports by the government placed the number of deaths due to the riots at 196, although international diplomatic sources and observers at the time suggested a toll of close to 600 while others suggested much higher figures, with most of the victims being ethnic Chinese.^[1][2] The racial riots led to a declaration of a state of national emergency by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King), resulting in the suspension of Parliament. A National Operations Council (NOC) was established as a caretaker government to temporarily govern the country between 1969 and 1971.

This event was significant in Malaysian politics as it forced the first Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman to step down from office and hand over the reins to Abdul Razak Hussein. Abdul Razak's government shifted their domestic policies to favour Malays with the implementation of the New Economic Policy (NEP), and the Malay party UMNO restructured the political system to advance Malay dominance in accordance with the ideology of Ketuanan Melayu (lit. "Malay Supremacy").^[3]

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History of Malaysia
Prehistoric period Paleolithic  Lenggong Valley c. 2,000,0000 BCE  Mansuli Valley 235,000 BCE Mesolithic  Niah cultures 65,000–40,000 BCE Neolithic  Bewah man/woman 16,000 BCE  Perak man/woman 11,000–200 BCE  Neolithic Klang 500 – 200 BCE
Early kingdoms Ancient Kedah <100 BCE Chi Tu 100 BCE–642 CE Langkasuka 100 BCE–1474 CE Gangga Negara c. 100 CE–1025 Pan Pan 424–775 Old Kedah 170–1135 Old Pahang 449–1454 Srivijaya 700s–1025 Majapahit 1300s
Rise of Muslim states Kedah Sultanate 1136–present Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267–1521 Brunei Sultanate 1368–present Malacca Sultanate 1402–1511 Sulu Sultanate 1450–1899 Pahang Sultanate 1470–1623 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Pattani Sultanate 1516– 1902 Johor Sultanate 1528–present Sarawak Sultanate 1599–1641 Selangor Sultanate 1766–present Besut Kingdom 1780–1899 Setul Kingdom 1808–1916 Reman Kingdom 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu Kingdom 1839–1864
Colonial period Portuguese Malacca 1511–1641 Dutch–Portuguese War 1601–1661 Dutch Malacca 1641–1824 Pahang Kingdom 1770–1881 Straits Settlements 1786–1946 Siamese invasion of Kedah 1821–1826 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824 Burney Treaty 1826 Naning War 1831–1832 Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946 Separation of Perlis from Kedah 1843 Crown Colony of Labuan 1848–1946 Pahang Civil War 1857–1863 Larut Wars 1861–1874 Klang War 1867–1874 Pangkor Treaty 1874 Perak War 1875–1876 British Malaya / Borneo 1874–1946 Jementah Civil War 1879 North Borneo 1882–1946 Pahang Uprising 1891–1895 Mat Salleh Rebellion 1894–1905 Federated Malay States 1895–1946 Anglo-Siamese Treaty 1909 Unfederated Malay States 1909–1946 Battle of Penang 1914 Kelantan rebellion 1915
World War II Japanese occupation of Malaya / Borneo 1941–1945 Malayan campaign 1941–1942 Bornean Campaign 1941–1942 Battle of Muar 1942 Parit Sulong Massacre 1942 Battle of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942 Syburi 1942 Sandakan Death Marches 1942–1945 Si Rat Malai 1943–1945 Jesselton revolt 1943–1944
Formative period BMA of Malaya/Borneo 1945–1946 Crown Colony of N. Borneo/Sarawak 1946–1963 Anti-cession movement 1946–1963 Malayan Union 1946–1948 Federation of Malaya 1948–1963 Malayan Emergency 1948–1960 Baling Talks 1955
Independence period Malayan Independence 1957 Singapore self-governance 1959 ISA 1960 1960–2012 Sarawak Insurgency 1962–1990 North Borneo self-governance 1963 Konfrontasi 1963–1966 Sarawak self-governance 1963 Formation of Malaysia 1963 Singapore in Malaysia 1963–1965 ASEAN Declaration 1967 Second communist insurgency 1968–1989
Modern period 13 May incident 1969 National Operations Council 1969–1971 Declaration of Rukun Negara 1970 New Economic Policy 1971–1990 Federal Territory of KL 1974 1977 Kelantan Emergency 1977 Pedra Branca dispute 1979–2008 South China Sea dispute (Spratly) 1980–present Federal Territory of Labuan 1984 Memali incident 1985 Operation Lalang 1987 Constitutional crisis 1987–1988 Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 Royal Immunity Amendments 1993 Asian financial crisis 1997–1998 Reformasi Movement 1998–2022 H1N1 flu pandemic 2009–2010 Sedition Dragnet 2014 1MDB scandal 2015–present Pakatan Harapan takeover 2018 COVID-19 pandemic 2020–2022 Political crisis 2020–2022 Bornean Amendment 2021–2023 Green Wave 2022–present
Incidents Brunei revolt 1962–1966 North Borneo dispute (Philippine militant attacks) 1962–present Singapore race riots 1964 Brunei's Limbang claim 1967–2009 Penang Hartal riot 1967 13 May Incident 1969 Ligitan and Sipadan dispute 1969–2002 Kuala Lumpur flash floods 1971 Malaysian haze crisis 1972–present AIA building hostage crisis 1975 National Monument bombing 1975 Campbell Shopping Complex fire 1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash 1976 Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident 1977 MH653 incident 1977 Dawn Raid 1981 1985 Lahad Datu ambush 1985 Memali Incident 1985 Sabah Emergency 1986 Ming Court Affair 1987 Penang terminal bridge collapse 1988 Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire 1989 Bright Sparklers disaster 1991 Highland Towers collapse 1993 Genting landslide 1995 MH2133 incident 1995 Pos Dipang mudflow 1996 Tropical Storm Greg 1996 1998–1999 Malaysia Nipah virus outbreak 1998–1999 2000 Sipadan kidnappings 2000 Al-Ma'unah incident 2000 Sauk Siege 2000 2001 Kampung Medan riots 2001 2002 Taman Hillview landslide 2002 Indian Ocean tsunami 2004 2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods 2006–2007 Bukit Gantang bus crash 2007 Bukit Antarabangsa landslide 2008 2009 swine flu pandemic in Malaysia 2009 Attacks against places of worship 2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash 2010 Hulu Langat landslide 2011 Genting Highlands bus crash 2013 MH370 incident 2014 MH17 incident 2014 2014–15 Malaysia floods 2014–2015 Sabah earthquake 2015 2015 Plaza Low Yat riot 2015 Movida Bar grenade attack 2016 Kim Jong-nam's Assassination 2017 Darul Quran madrasa fire 2017 2018 Subang Temple riot 2018 2020-21 Malaysia floods 2021 LRT train collision 2021 2021-22 Malaysia floods 2021–2022 2022 Batang Kali landslide 2022 2023 Elmina plane crash 2023 2024 Lumut helicopters crash 2024 2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack 2024
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On 31 August 1957, Malaya gained its independence from colonial rule. The country however suffered from a sharp division of wealth between the Chinese who dominated most urban areas and were perceived to be in control of a large portion of the country's economy, and the Malays, who were generally poorer and lived in more rural areas. The special privileged position of Malay political power however is guaranteed under Article 153 of the Constitution written during Malayan independence.^[4]

There were heated debates between Malay groups wanting radical measures to institutionalise Malay Supremacy (Ketuanan Melayu), while Chinese groups called for their 'racial' interest to be protected, and non-Malay opposition party members argued for a 'Malaysian Malaysia' rather than Malay privilege.^[5] In 1963, amid a background of racial tension, Malaysia was formed as a federation that incorporated Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia), Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak.

There had been several incidents of racial conflict between Malays and Chinese before the 1969 riots. For example, in Penang, hostility between the races turned into violence during the centenary celebration of George Town in 1957 which resulted in several days of fighting and several deaths,^[6] and there were further disturbances in 1959 and 1964, as well as a riot in 1967 which originated as a protest against currency devaluation but turned into racial killings.^[7][8] In Singapore, the antagonism between the races led to the 1964 race riots which contributed to the separation of Singapore from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.

In the 1969 election, the governing coalition the Alliance Party faced a strong challenge from opposition parties, in particular the two newly formed and mainly Chinese parties, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) and Parti Gerakan. The election was preceded by outbreaks of racial incidents that contributed to a tense atmosphere. A Malay political worker was killed by a Chinese gang in Penang, while a Chinese Labour Party activist was shot and killed in a clash with police in Kuala Lumpur.^[9] Radical opponents called for the boycott of the election and threatened violence, but the funeral procession of the shot activist, which drew large crowds of more than ten thousand and held before the election day, passed largely peacefully despite a number of disruptive incidents.^[10][11][12]

The general election was held on 10 May 1969, the election day itself passed without any incidents. The result showed that the Alliance had won less than half of the popular vote, a large setback for the ruling coalition.^[13] On the national level, the Alliance had gained a majority in the number of seats in the Parliament, albeit a significantly reduced one. The number of seats won by the Chinese component of the Alliance, the Malaysian Chinese Association, had been reduced by half. On the state level, the Alliance had only gained the majority in Selangor by co-operating with the sole independent candidate as the opposition had tied with the Alliance for control of the Selangor state legislature (although at that time immediately after the election it was unclear that the Alliance would still have control). The Alliance lost control of Kelantan (to the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party) and Perak, and the opposition Gerakan won control of the state government in Penang.^[14]

On the night of 11 and 12 May, the DAP and Gerakan celebrated their success in the election with permission sought by Dr. Tan Chee Khoon from the police. In particular, a large Gerakan procession welcomed the Gerakan leader V. David.^[15] The parades by the opposition parties passed through Malay communities such as Kampung Baru and were alleged to be highly provocative, with non-Malays taunting Malays while bearing slogans such as: "Semua Melayu kasi habis" (Finish off all the Malays), "Kuala Lumpur sekarang Cina punya" (Kuala Lumpur now belongs to the Chinese).^[10][16] Some supporters of the opposition were said to have driven past the residence of the Selangor chief minister and demanded that he abandon the residence in favour of a Chinese.^[17]

The celebrations by the opposition parties were seen as an attack on Malay political power. Although the election results still favoured the Malays despite losses, the Malay newspaper Utusan Melayu suggested in an editorial that the results had jeopardised the future of Malay rule, and that prompt action was required to shore it up.^[18] On 12 May members of UMNO Youth indicated to Selangor's Menteri Besar Dato' Harun Idris that they wanted to hold a victory parade.

The United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) then announced a procession, which would start from the Harun Idris's residence. Tunku Abdul Rahman would later call the retaliatory parade "inevitable, as otherwise the party members would be demoralised after the show of strength by the Opposition and the insults that had been thrown at them".^[16] Malays were brought from the rural areas into Kuala Lumpur, which was then a predominantly Chinese city. Thousands of Malays, some of them armed, arrived to join the parade.^[17]

The UMNO procession was planned for the evening at 7:30 pm on Tuesday 13 May. On the morning of 13 May, Malays began to gather at the residence of Selangor's Menteri Besar Dato' Harun Idris on Jalan Raja Muda on the edge of Kampung Baru, although some were already there as early as Sunday evening. The Malays came from various parts of Selangor such as Morib (Harun's constituency) and Banting, and some may have came from parts of Perak.^[19] According to the National Operations Council's (NOC) official report, at around 6 pm, fist fights broke out in Setapak between a group of Malays from Gombak travelling to the rally and Chinese bystanders who taunted them, and this escalated into bottle and stone throwing.^[20] News of the fighting then reached the gathering crowd in Jalan Raja Muda, and shortly before 6:30 pm, many Malays broke off from the rallying point at the Menteri Besar's house and headed through adjoining Chinese sections.^[10] The Malays, armed with parangs and kris, burned cars and shops, killed and looted in the Chinese areas;^[10] according to Time, at least eight Chinese people were killed in the initial attack.^[21] Once violence broke out, it spread rapidly and uncontrollably throughout the city within 45 minutes,^[1] to Jalan Campbell, Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman (Batu Road), Kampung Datuk Keramat, Kampung Pandan, Cheras and Kampung Kerinchi.^[22]

According to John Slimming, who wrote an account of the riot in 1969, the Chinese were taken by surprise and did not retaliate for more than an hour.^[23] The NOC's official report, however, suggested that Chinese secret society elements had prepared for trouble and were in action when the violence started in Kampung Baru.^[24] In Batu Road, Chinese and Indian shopkeepers began to form themselves into an improvised defence force, while a Malay mob attempting to storm the Chow Kit Road area were met with armed secret society gang members and ran.^[25] The Chinese attacked Malays who were found in Chinese areas, and Malay patrons in cinemas were singled out and killed.^[25] They also attempted to burn down the UMNO headquarters on Batu Road and besieged the Salak South Police Station.^[23][26]

Early in the evening the rioters were met by police, who used tear gas in an attempt to control them. A 24-hour curfew for Kuala Lumpur was announced on the radio at 7:35 pm and repeated on television at 8 pm. Later, between 8:30 and 9:00 pm, a shoot-to-kill order was given by Inspector General of Police Mohamed Salleh bin Ismael. This was followed by another shoot-to-kill order from the Chief of Armed Forces, General Tunku Osman Jiwa.^[27] The army was deployed and they entered the areas affected by rioting at around 10 pm.^[28] Many people who were unaware of the curfew order were shot. Some were also shot while standing in their own doorways and gardens. Foreign correspondents reported seeing members of the Royal Malay Regiment firing into Chinese shop-houses for no apparent reason.^[27]

By 5 am the next morning, the authorities at Kuala Lumpur General Hospital reported that there were about 80 dead at the hospital. Members of the hospital staff also reported that the initial casualties between 7 and 8:30 pm had all been Chinese suffering from parang slashes and stab wounds, but that between 8:30 and 10:30 pm the victims were equally divided between Chinese and Malays. However, after about 10:30 pm the casualties were almost all Chinese, with nearly all of them suffering from gunshot wounds.^[27]

The army gathered at crucial road junctions and patrolled the main streets, but even though a curfew had been announced, young men in areas such as Kampung Baru and Pudu ignored the order. Although most of the killings occurred on Tuesday night and Wednesday morning, the burning and looting of Chinese shops and houses by Malays continued with most incidents of serious arson occurring on Thursday night and Friday. Over 450 houses were burnt.^[29] People displaced by the riots, most of them Chinese, were sent to official refugee centres in different parts of town – the Malays to Stadium Negara, and the Chinese to Stadium Merdeka, Chinwoo Stadium, and Shaw Road School. By Sunday, the number of Chinese refugees had increased to 3,500 in Merdeka Stadium, 1,500 in Chinwoo Stadium, and 800 in Shaw Road School, while the Malays in Stadium Negara had decreased from 650 on Thursday to 250 on Sunday.^[30] Over a thousand refugees were still left in Merdeka Stadium a month after the riot.^[31]

The curfew was relaxed briefly but quickly reimposed on Thursday morning. It was lifted again for three hours on Saturday morning. The curfew was gradually relaxed as the situation slowly returned to normal, but by the end of the month the curfew was still in force from 3 in the afternoon until 6:30 in the morning.^[32]

The violence was concentrated in urban areas, and except for minor disturbances in Malacca, Perak, Penang and neighbouring Singapore, where the populations of Chinese people were similarly larger, the rest of the country remained calm.^{[citation needed]}

On 28 June 1969, rioting broke out again in Sentul when Malays attacked Indians, and 15 were killed.^[33]

According to police figures which are disputed, 196 people were killed in the riots.^[34] The official figures gave 143 of the dead as Chinese, 25 Malay, 13 Indian, and 15 others (undetermined),^[35] although unofficial figures suggested a higher number of Chinese deaths.^[36] The police were authorised to bury any dead bodies found or disposed of them any way they could without inquests or inquiries, which made estimation of the number of deaths difficult as many of the dead were disposed of undocumented. Some were reported to have been thrown into the Klang River, and some were believed to have been disposed of in pools in tin mines.^[37] A mass burial of the victims was also captured on film at the Sungai Buloh leper colony near Kuala Lumpur.^[38] Western diplomatic sources at that time put the toll at close to 600,^[1] and John Slimming estimated the number of deaths to be around 800 in the first week by including hundreds who were officially missing, while other observers and correspondents suggested four-figure numbers.^[39][40]

According to official figures 439 individuals were also recorded as injured.^[12] 753 cases of arson were logged and 211 vehicles were destroyed or severely damaged.

Immediately after the riot, the government assumed emergency powers and suspended Parliament, which would reconvene again in 1971. It also suspended the press and established a National Operations Council (NOC).

The government ordered an immediate curfew throughout the state of Selangor. Security forces comprising some 2,000 Royal Malay Regiment soldiers and 3,600 police officers were deployed and took control of the situation. On 14 and 16 May, a state of emergency and accompanying curfew were declared throughout the country.

On 15 May, the National Operations Council (NOC), also known as the Majlis Gerakan Negara (MAGERAN), headed by Abdul Razak Hussein was established following a Proclamation of Emergency by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia) Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin of Terengganu. Parts of the constitution were also suspended.^[41] With Parliament suspended, the NOC became the supreme decision-making body for the next 18 months. State and District Operations Councils took over state and local governments. The NOC implemented security measures to restore law and order in the country, including the establishment of an unarmed Vigilante Corps, a territorial army, and police force battalions.^{[citation needed]}

Newspaper publications were suspended on 15 May, but resumed on 18 May, and censorship was then applied on 21 May.^[42] Foreign publications were banned, citizens found in possession of foreign news clippings were detained, and foreign reporters were criticised over allegations of racial bias by the army.^[43] The restoration of order in the country was gradually achieved. Curfews continued in most parts of the country, but were gradually scaled back. Peace was restored in the affected areas within two months. In February 1971 parliamentary rule was re-established. The Proclamation of Emergency and the act enacted (Emergency Ordinance 1969) however were never revoked.^[41]

The NOC released a report on 9 October 1969, and it cited "racial politics" as the primary cause of the riots, but was reluctant to assign blame to the Malays.^[44]

The Malays who already felt excluded in the country's economic life, now began to feel a threat in their place in the public services. No mention was ever made by non-Malay politicians of the almost closed-door attitude to the Malays by non-Malays in large sections of the private sector in this country.^[45]

Certain non-Malay racialist election speakers constantly worked up non-Malay passions against Malay policemen and officers, alleging partial treatment of the enforcement of the law. They contributed directly to the breakdown in respect for the law and authority amongst sections of the non-Malay communities.^[44]

It also attributed the cause of the riots in part to both the Malayan Communist Party and secret societies:

The eruption of violence on 13 May was the result of an interplay of forces... These include a generation gap and differences in interpretation of the constitutional structure by the different races in the country...; the incitement, intemperate statements and provocative behaviours of certain racialist party members and supporters during the recent General Election; the part played by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and secret societies in inciting racial feelings and suspicion; and the anxious, and later desperate, mood of the Malays with a background of Sino-Malay distrust, and recently, just after the General Elections, as a result of racial insults and threat to their future survival in their own country'

— Extract from The 13 May Tragedy, a report by the National Operations Council, October 1969.^[46]

It however said that the "trouble turned out to be a communal clash between the Malays and the Chinese" rather than an instance of Communist insurgency.^[44] The report also denied rumours of lack of evenhandedness by the security forces in their handling of the crisis.^[47]

Tunku Abdul Rahman, in a book released two weeks before the report, blamed the opposition parties for the violence, as well as the influence of the Communists, and thought that the incidents were sparked off by Chinese Communist youths. He absolved the majority of the Malays, Chinese and Indians of any responsibility, and considered the Malays who converged in Kuala Lumpur on May 13 to be merely responding to "intolerable provocations".^[48]

The Rukun Negara, the de facto Malaysian pledge of allegiance, was a reaction to the riot. The pledge was introduced on 31 August 1970 as a way to foster unity among Malaysians.

The Malay nationalist politician Mahathir Mohamad, who was then a lesser-known politician and lost his seat as a UMNO candidate in the 10 May election, blamed the riot on the government and especially on Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for being "simple-minded" and not planning for a prosperous Malaysia where the Malays have a share of the economic stake. The Tunku in turn blamed "extremists" such as Mahathir for the racial clashes, which led to the expulsion of Mahathir from the UMNO.^[49] It propelled Mahathir to write his seminal work The Malay Dilemma, in which he posited a solution to Malaysia's racial tensions based on aiding the Malays economically through an affirmative action programme.

The affirmative action policies included the New Economic Policy (NEP), and the creation of Kuala Lumpur as a Federal Territory out of Selangor state in 1974, five years later.

After the riots, Tunku Abdul Rahman was forced into the background, with the day-to-day running of the country handed to the deputy Prime Minister, Abdul Razak Hussein, who was also the director of the National Operations Council. On 22 September 1970 when the Parliament reconvened, Abdul Rahman resigned his position as Prime Minister, and Abdul Razak Hussein took over.^[50]

In his 2007 book May 13: Declassified Documents on the Malaysian Riots of 1969, Kua Kia Soong argued that, based on declassified British Embassy dispatches, the riot was a coup d'état staged against Tunku Abdul Rahman by UMNO political leaders in association with the army and the police.^[51]

In an attempt to form a broader coalition, the Barisan Nasional was formed in place of the Alliance Party, with former opposition parties such as Gerakan, PPP, and PAS invited to join the coalition.^[52]

After the 1969 riot, UMNO also began to restructure the political system to reinforce its power. It advanced its own version of Ketuanan Melayu whereby "the politics of this country has been, and must remain for the foreseeable future, native [i.e. Malay] based: that was the secret of our stability and our prosperity and that is a fact of political life which no one can simply wish away."^[3] This principle of Ketuanan Melayu had been repeatedly used in successive election by UMNO to galvanise Malay support for the party,^[53] and it remained the guiding principle of successive governments.^[54]

• 1969 race riots of Singapore
• Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP)
• May 13: Declassified Documents on the Malaysian Riots of 1969
• May 1998 riots of Indonesia, a similar incident
• National Operations Council (NOC)
• Operation Lalang
• Snow in Midsummer, a 2023 historical drama film evoking the events of the 13 May

• The National Operations Council (1969). The May 13 Tragedy: A Report. Official report by the NOC
• Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to Timor, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
• Slimming, John (1969). The Death of a Democracy. John Murray Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7195-2045-7. Book written by a British journalist from The Observer who was in Kuala Lumpur at the time.
• Tunku Abdul Rahman (1969). 13 May: Before and After. Utusan Melayu Press Ltd. An account given by the then Prime Minister of Malaysia. Excerpts here
• von Vorys, Karl (1975). Democracy Without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07571-6. Paperback reprint (2015) ISBN 978-0691617640.

• Kakiseni's review of Dato Jin Shamsuddin’s Kota Idaman 13 Sempadan play in 2004.
• Declassified Documents on the Malaysian Riots of 1969