iBet uBet web content aggregator. Adding the entire web to your favor.
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Sueski kanal - Wikipedia Idi na sadržaj

Sueski kanal

S Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije
Lokacija Sueskog kanala

Sueski kanal (arapski: قناة السويس, Qanāt as-Suwais) jest vještački kanal u visini mora između Sredozemnog i Crvenog mora koji povezuje lučke gradove Port Said i Suez.[1] kroz Suesku prevlaku i koji dijeli Afriku od Azije (i dalje, Sinajsko poluostrvo od ostatka Egipta). Kanal dug 193,30 km i ključna je trgovačka ruta između Evrope i Azije.

Godine 1858. Ferdinand de Lesseps je osnovao kompaniju Sueski kanal za izričitu svrhu izgradnje kanala. Izgradnja kanala trajala je od 1859. do 1869. Kanal je službeno otvoren 17. novembra 1869. Plovilima nudi direktan put između sjevernog Atlantika i sjevernog Indijskog okeana preko Sredozemnog i Crvenog mora, izbjegavajući južni Atlantik i južni Indijski okean, te smanjenje udaljenosti putovanja od Arapskog mora do Londona za otprilike 8.900 km, na 10 dana pri 20 čvorova (37 km/h) ili 8 dana pri 24 čvora (44 km/h).[2] Kanal se proteže od sjevernog kraja Port Saida do južnog kraja Port Tewfik u gradu Suez. U 2021, više od 20.600 plovila prešlo je kanal (u prosjeku 56 dnevno).[3]

Originalni kanal je sadržavao jednostruki plovni put sa prolaznim lokacijama u obilaznici Balaha i Velikom gorkom jezeru.[4] U njemu, prema planovima Alois Negrellija, nije bilo ustava, a morska voda je slobodno tekla kroz njega. Općenito, voda u kanalu sjeverno od Gorkih jezera teče na sjever zimi i na jug ljeti. Južno od jezera, struja se mijenja sa plimom u Suesu.[5]

Kanal je bio vlasništvo egipatske vlade, ali evropski dioničari, uglavnom britanski i francuski, posjedovali su koncesijsku kompaniju koja je njime upravljala do jula 1956, kada ga je predsjednik Gamal Abdel Nasser nacionalizirao - događaj koji je doveo do Sueske krize od oktobra do novembra. 1956.[6] Kanalom upravlja i održava državna uprava za Sueski kanal[7] (SCA) Egipta. Prema Carigradskoj konvenciji, može se koristiti "u vrijeme rata kao i u vrijeme mira, svakim trgovačkim ili ratnim brodom, bez obzira na zastavu pod kojom plovi."[8] Ipak, kanal je igrao važnu vojno-stratešku ulogu kao pomorska prečica i tačka gušenja. Mornarice s obalama i bazama i na Sredozemnom i na Crvenom moru (Egipat i Izrael) imaju poseban interes za Sueski kanal. Nakon što je Egipat zatvorio Sueski kanal na početku Šestodnevnog rata 5. juna 1967, kanal je ostao zatvoren tačno osam godina, a ponovo je otvoren 5. juna 1975.[9]

Egipatska vlada pokrenula je izgradnju 2014. kako bi proširila obilaznicu Ballah za 35 km kako bi se ubrzalo vrijeme tranzita kroz kanal. Proširenje je namjeravalo skoro udvostručiti kapacitet Sueskog kanala, sa 49 na 97 brodova dnevno.[10] Po cijeni od 59,4 milijarde LE (9 milijardi američkih dolara), ovaj projekat je finansiran kamatonosnim investicijskim certifikatima izdatim isključivo egipatskim pravnim licima i pojedincima.

Uprava za Sueski kanal službeno je otvorila novi bočni kanal 2016. Ovaj bočni kanal, na sjevernoj strani istočnog produžetka Sueskog kanala, služi istočnom terminalu za pristajanje i iskrcavanje plovila sa terminala. Kako se Istočni kontejnerski terminal nalazi na samom kanalu, prije izgradnje novog bočnog kanala nije bilo moguće pristajati ili iskrcati plovila na terminalu dok je išao konvoj brodova.[11]

Ptičiji pogled na Sueski kanal

Prethodnici

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Kanal faraona, koji prati Wadi Tumilat

Drevni kanali zapad-istok izgrađeni su da bi se olakšalo putovanje od Nila do Crvenog mora.[12][13][14] Vjeruje se da je jedan manji kanal izgrađen za vrijeme Senusreta II ili Ramzesa II.[12][13][14] Drugi kanal, koji je vjerovatno uključivao dio prvog,[12][13] izgrađen je za vrijeme vladavine Neka II, ali jedini potpuno funkcionalni kanal projektirao je i dovršio Darije I.[12][13][14]

Južni kraj Sueskog kanala u Suesu na Sueskom zalivu, na sjevernom kraju Crvenog mora

Drugi milenij p. n. e.

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James Henry Breasted pripisuje najraniji poznati pokušaj izgradnje kanala prvoj katarakti, blizu Asuana, Šestoj egipatskoj dinastiji, a njegov završetak Senusretu III iz Dvanaeste egipatske dinastije.[15]

Legendarni Sesostris (vjerovatno faraon Senusret II ili Senusret III iz Dvanaeste egipatske dinastije[15]) je možda izgradio drevni kanal, Kanal faraona, spajajući Nil sa Crvenim morem (1897-1839 p. n. e. ), kada je oko 1848. p. n. e. izgrađen kanal za navodnjavanje koji je bio plovni tokom sezone poplava i koji je vodio u suhu riječnu dolinu istočno od delte rijeke Nil po imenu Wadi Tumilat.[16] (smatra se da je u davna vremena Crveno more dosezalo na sjever do Gorkih jezera[12][13] i jezera Timsah).[17][18]

U svojoj Meteorologiji, Aristotel (384–322 p. n. e.) je napisao:

Jedan od njihovih kraljeva pokušao je napraviti kanal do njega (jer bi im bilo od velike koristi da cijela regija postane plovna; kaže se da je Sesostris bio prvi od drevnih kraljeva koji je to pokušao), ali je on otkrio da je more više od kopna. Tako su on prvo, a potom Darije, prestali graditi kanal, da se more ne pomiješa sa riječnom vodom i pokvari je.[19]

Strabon je napisao da je Sesostris počeo graditi kanal, a Plinije Stariji (23/24–79 n.e.) je napisao:

165. Zatim dolazi pleme Tiro i luka Daneja, iz koje je Sesostris, egipatski kralj, nameravao da preveze brodski kanal do mesta gde se Nil uliva u ono što je poznato kao Delta; ovo je udaljenost od preko 100 km. Kasnije je perzijski kralj Darije imao istu ideju, a opet Ptolomej II, koji je napravio rov širok 30 metara, dubok 9 metara i dug oko 55 kilometara, sve do Gorkog Jezera.[20]

U 20. stoljeću otkriveno je proširenje ka sjeveru kasnijeg kanala Darije I, koje se proteže od jezera Timsah do jezera Ballah.[21] Datirano je u Srednje egipatsko carstvo ekstrapolacijom datuma drevnih lokaliteta duž njegovog toka.[21]

Reljefi ekspedicije na Puntu pod Hatšepsut, 1470. p.n.e, prikazuju pomorska plovila koja nose ekspedicione snage koje se vraćaju sa Punta. Ovo sugeriše da je postojala plovna veza između Crvenog mora i Nila.[22] Nedavna iskopavanja u Wadi Gawasisu mogu ukazivati na to da je egipatska pomorska trgovina započela od Crvenog mora i da nije bio potreban kanal. Čini se da dokazi ukazuju na njegovo postojanje do 13. vijeka p. n. e. za vrijeme Ramzesa II.[12][23][24][25]

Kanali koje su kopali Neko II, Darije I i Ptolomej

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Ostatke drevnog kanala zapad-istok kroz drevne egipatske gradove Bubastis, Pi-Ramesses i Pithom otkrili su Napoléon Bonaparte i njegovi inžinjeri i kartografi 1799.[13][26][27][28][29]

Prema Historijama grčkog historičara Herodota,[30], Neko II je preduzeo da prokopa kanal zapad-istok kroz Wadi Tumilat između Bubastisa i Heroopolisa,[13] i možda ga nastavio do Heroopolitskog zaliva i Crvenog Mora.[12] Bez obzira na to, navodi se da Neko II nikada nije završio svoj projekat.[12][13]

Herodotu je rečeno da je 120.000 ljudi stradalo u ovom poduhvatu, ali je ova brojka nesumnjivo preuveličana.[31] Prema Pliniju Starijem, Nekovo proširenje do kanala bilo je oko 92 kilometra,[13] jednako ukupnoj udaljenosti između Bubastisa i Velikog gorkog jezera, što je omogućavalo vijuganje kroz doline.[13] Dužina koju Herodot kaže, od preko 1000 stadija (tj. preko 183 km), mora se shvatiti kao cjelokupna udaljenost između Nila i Crvenog mora[13] u to vrijeme.

Sa Nekovom smrću, rad je prekinut. Herodot kaže da je razlog zbog kojeg je projekat napušten bio upozorenje primljeno od proročišta da će drugi imati koristi od njegovog uspješnog završetka.[13][32] Nekov rat sa Nebuchadnezzarom IIII najvjerovatnije je spriječio nastavak kanala.

Nekov projekat je završio Darije I od Perzije, koji je vladao Starim Egiptom nakon što ga je osvojio njegov prethodnik Kambiz II.[33] Možda je do Darijevog vremena postojao prirodni[13] plovni prolaz koji je postojao[12] između Heroopolitskog zaliva i Crvenog mora[34] u blizini egipatskog grada Šalufa[13] (alt. Chalouf[35] ili Shaloof[18]), koji se nalazi južno od Velikog gorkog jezera,[13][18] je postao toliko blokiran[12] muljem[13] da je Darius morao da ga očisti kako bi omogućio plovidbu.[13] Prema Herodotu, Darijev kanal je bio dovoljno širok da su dvije trireme mogle proći jedna uz drugu sa ispruženim veslima, a za prelazak je bilo potrebno četiri dana. Darije je obilježio svoje postignuće brojnim granitnim stelama koje je postavio na obali Nila, uključujući jednu u blizini Kabreta i još jednu nekoliko kilometara sjeverno od Suesa. Sueski natpisi Darija Velikog glase:[36]

Kralj Darije kaže: Ja sam Perzijanac; krenuvši iz Perzije osvojio sam Egipat. Naredio sam da se prokopa ovaj kanal od rijeke koja se zove Nil i teče u Egiptu, do mora koje počinje u Perziji. Stoga, kada je ovaj kanal iskopan kako sam naredio, brodovi su išli iz Egipta kroz ovaj kanal u Perziju, kako sam i namjeravao

— Darije

Kanal je napustio Nil kod Bubastisa. Natpis[37] na stubu u Pitomu bilježi da ga je 270. ili 269. godine p. n. e. ponovo otvorio Ptolemej II Filadelf. U Arsinoi,[13] Ptolomej je konstruisao plovnu bravu, sa pregradama, u zalivu Heroopolite u Crvenom moru,[34] koja je dozvoljavala prolaz plovilima, ali je sprječavala mješanje slane vode iz Crvenog mora sa slatkom vodom u kanalu.[38]

U drugoj polovini 19. stoljeća, francuski kartografi otkrili su ostatke drevnog kanala sjever-jug pored istočne strane jezera Timsah i završavajući blizu sjevernog kraja Velikog gorkog jezera.[39] Pokazalo se da je to kanal koji je napravio Darije I, jer je na tom mjestu pronađena njegova stela u spomen na njegovu izgradnju. (Ovaj drevni, drugi kanal možda je pratio tok duž obale Crvenog mora kada se nekada prostirao na sjever do jezera Timsah.[18][39])

Povlačenje Crvenog mora i Nila koji se smanjuje

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Neki historičari veruju da se Crveno more postepeno povlačilo tokom vijekova, a njegova obala se polako pomjerala ka jugu od jezera Timsah[17][18] i Velikog gorkog jezera.[12][13] Zajedno sa upornim akumulacijama nilskog mulja, održavanje i popravka Ptolomejevog kanala postajali su sve glomazniji tokom svakog stoljeća.

Dvjesta godina nakon izgradnje Ptolemejevog kanala, Kleopatra izgleda nije imala prolaz plovnim putem zapad-istok,[12][13] jer je Peluzijački rukavac Nila, koji je hranio Ptolemejev kanal zapad-istok, do tog vremena oslabio, zagušen muljem.[12][13] U prilog ovoj tvrdnji može se primijetiti da je 31. p. n. e, tokom preokreta u ratu Marka Antonija i Kleopatre protiv Oktavijana, pokušala pobjeći iz Egipta sa svojom flotom podizanjem brodova iz Mediterana i vukući ih preko prevlake Suez do Crvenog mora. Tada su, prema Plutarhu, Arapi Petre napali i spalili prvi talas ovih brodova i Kleopatra je odustala od toga.[40] (Savremeni historičari, međutim, tvrde da su njene brodove spalile neprijateljske snage Maliha I.)[41][42]

Stari Kairo do Crvenog mora

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Do 8. stoljeća postojao je plovni kanal između Starog Kaira i Crvenog mora,[12][13] ali se izvještaji razlikuju o tome ko je naredio njegovu izgradnju – Trajan ili 'Amr ibn al-'As, ili Omer.[12][13] Ovaj kanal je navodno bio povezan sa rijekom Nil u Starom Kairu[13] i završavao je blizu modernog Suesa.[12][43] Geografska rasprava "De Mensura Orbis Terrae" koju je napisao irski monah Dikuil (rođen krajem 8. vijeka) izveštava o razgovoru sa drugim monahom, Fidelisom, koji je plovio kanalom od Nila do Crvenog mora tokom hodočašća u Svetu zemlju u prvoj polovini 8. vijeka.[44]

Kaže se da je abasidski kalif El-Mensur naredio da se ovaj kanal zatvori 767. kako bi spriječio zalihe da dođu do arapskih klevetnika.[12][13]

Al-Hakimov popravak

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Za Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allaha se tvrdi da je popravio prolaz od Kaira do Crvenog mora, ali samo nakratko, oko 1000. godine n. e, jer je ubrzo "zagušen pijeskom".[13] Međutim, dijelovi ovog kanala su se i dalje punili tokom godišnjih poplava Nila.[12][13]

Koncepcija Venecije

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Uspješna plovidba Bartolomeu Diasa južnom Afrikom 1488. otvorila je direktnu pomorsku trgovačku rutu do Indije i Ostrva začina i zauvijek promijenila ravnotežu mediteranske trgovine. Jedan od najistaknutijih gubitnika u novom poretku, kao bivši posrednik, bio je nekadašnji centar za trgovinu začinima u Veneciji.

Venecijanski lideri, dovedeni do očaja, razmišljali su o kopanju plovnog puta između Crvenog mora i Nila – predviđajući Sueski kanal za skoro 400 godina – kako bi luksuznu trgovinu ponovo preplavili pred vratima. Ali ovo je ostao san.

— Colin Thubron, Seafarers: The Venetians (1980), str. 102

Uprkos ulasku u pregovore sa egipatskim vladajućim Memlucima, venecijanski plan za izgradnju kanala brzo je prekinut osmanlijskim osvajanjem Egipta 1517, koje je predvodio sultan Selim I.[45]

Osmanlijski pokušaji

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Tokom 16. vijeka, osmanlijski veliki vezir Mehmed-paša Sokolović pokušao je izgraditi kanal koji povezuje Crveno more i Mediteran. Ovo je bilo motivisano željom da se Carigrad poveže sa hodočasničkim i trgovačkim putevima Indijskog okeana, kao i strateškim interesima – kako je evropsko prisustvo u Indijskom okeanu raslo, osmanlijski trgovački i strateški interesi su bili sve više osporavani, a uzvišena Porta je bila sve više pritisnuta da potvrdi svoju poziciju. Plovni kanal bi omogućio Osmanlijskoj mornarici da poveže svoje flote na Crvenom moru, Crnom moru i Mediteranu. Međutim, ovaj projekat je ocijenjen preskupim i nikada nije završen.[46][47]

Napoleonovo otkriće drevnog kanala

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Tokom francuske kampanje u Egiptu i Siriji krajem 1798, Napoleon je izrazio interesovanje za pronalaženje ostataka drevnog prolaza plovnog puta. Ovo je kulminiralo grupom arheologa, naučnika, kartografa i inžinjera koji su pretraživali sjeverni Egipat.[48][49] Njihovi nalazi, zabilježeni u "Description de l'Égypte", uključuju detaljne karte koje prikazuju otkriće drevnog kanala koji se proteže na sjever od Crvenog mora, a zatim na zapad prema Nilu.[48][50]

Kasnije je Napoleon, koji je postao francuski car 1804, razmišljao o izgradnji kanala sjever-jug koji bi povezao Mediteran sa Crvenim morem. Ali od plana se odustalo jer je pogrešno zaključeno da će plovnom putu biti potrebne prevodnice za rad, čija bi izgradnja bila skupa i dugotrajna. Vjerovanje u potrebu za ustavama temeljilo se na pogrešnom vjerovanju da je Crveno more 8,5 m više od Sredozemnog mora. To je bio rezultat korištenja fragmentarnih mjerenja u toku rata tokom Napoleonove egipatske ekspedicije.

Još 1861, neplovni drevni put koji je Napoleon otkrio od Bubastisa do Crvenog mora još uvijek je vodio vodu na istok do Kasassina.[13]

Historija

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U Carigradu (današnji Istanbul) sastali su se predstavnici devet tada najjačih pomorskih zemalja i usvojili Carigradsku konvenciju o Suezu. Konvencija je predviđala slobodnu plovidbu kroz Sueski kanal i u doba mira i u doba rata za sve trgovačke i ratne brodove svih država. Ta se odredba pretežno i poštivala, osim u vrijeme svjetskih ratova, kad je kanal bio zatvoren za države koje su bile u neprijateljskim odnosima s Velikom Britanijom.

Novi kanal

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U augustu 2015. pušten je u promet Novi kanal.[51][52][53][54] Ovim poduhvatom je omogućena istovremena plovidba brodova u oba pravca, što prije nije bilo moguće. Projekat je koštao 8 milijardi dolara, i Egipat očekuje veće prihode od budućeg olakšanog prometa.

Ekonomski uticaj

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Prihodi Sueskog kanala u USD
Stara luka u Trstu, jednom od ekonomskih centara u 19-om stoljeću

Ekonomski, nakon njegovog završetka, kanal je prvenstveno imao koristi od pomorskih trgovačkih snaga mediteranskih zemalja, koje su sada imale mnogo brže veze sa Bliskim i Dalekim istokom nego sjeverno- i zapadnoevropske pomorske trgovačke nacije poput Velike Britanije ili Njemačke.[55][56][57] Glavna habsburška trgovačka luka Trst sa svojim direktnim vezama sa srednjom Evropom doživjela je u to vrijeme meteorski uspon.[58][59]

Ušteđeno vrijeme u 19. vijeku za pretpostavljeno putovanje parobrodom do Mumbaija iz Trsta bilo je 37 dana, iz Genove 32, iz Marseja 31, iz Bordoa, Liverpoola, Londona, Amsterdama i Hamburga 24 dana. U to vrijeme je također bilo potrebno razmotriti da li roba koja se prevozi može podnijeti skupu kanalsku tarifu. To je dovelo do brzog rasta mediteranskih luka sa njihovim kopnenim putevima prema srednjoj i istočnoj Evropi. Prema današnjim informacijama brodarskih kompanija, ruta od Singapura do Rotterdama kroz Sueski kanal biće skraćena za 6.000 km i time za devet dana u odnosu na rutu oko Afrike. Kao rezultat toga, linijske usluge između Azije i Evrope štede 44 posto CO2 (ugljični dioksid) zahvaljujući ovoj kraćoj ruti. Sueski kanal ima odgovarajuću važnu ulogu u vezi između istočne Afrike i mediteranskog regiona.[60][61][62]

U 20. vijeku trgovina kroz Sueski kanal nekoliko puta je zastajala, zbog dva svjetska rata i krize u Sueskom kanalu. Mnogi trgovačkiki tokovi su također pomjereni iz mediteranskih luka prema sjevernoevropskim terminalima, kao što su Hamburg i Rotterdam. Tek nakon završetka Hladnog rata, rasta evropske ekonomske integracije, razmatranja emisije CO2 i Kineske inicijative Puta svile, mediteranske luke poput Pireja i Trsta ponovo su u fokusu rasta i investicija.[60][63][64][65][66]

Sueski kanal postavio je novi rekord sa godišnjim prihodom od 9,4 milijarde USD za fiskalnu godinu koja je završila 30. juna 2023.[67]

Uticaj na okolinu

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Otvaranjem kanala stvoren je prvi prolaz slane vode između Sredozemnog i Crvenog mora. Iako je Crveno more oko 1,2 m više od istočnog Mediterana,[68] struja između Sredozemnog mora i sredine kanala kod Gorkih jezera teče na sjever zimi i na jug ljeti. Sadašnji južni deo Gorkih jezera je plimski, varirajući u zavisnosti od plime u Suesu.[5] Gorka jezera, koja su bila hiperslana prirodna jezera, blokirala su migraciju vrsta Crvenog mora u Mediteran dugi niz decenija, ali kako se slanost jezera postepeno izjednačavala sa salinitetom Crvenog mora, barijera migracijama je uklonjena, a biljke i životinje iz Crvenog mora su počele kolonizirati istočni Mediteran.

Crveno more je općenito slanije i manje bogato nutrijentima od Mediterana, tako da će se eritrejske vrste često dobro snaći u 'blažem' istočnom mediteranskom okruženju. Naprotiv, vrlo malo mediteranskih vrsta je uspjelo da se nastani u „strožim“ uslovima Crvenog mora. Dominantni migratorni prolaz od juga ka sjeveru preko kanala često se naziva lesepska migracija (po Ferdinandu de Lessepsu) ili „Eritrejska invazija“. Nedavna izgradnja velikog proširenja kanala od strane egipatske vlade – omogućavajući dvosmjerni saobraćaj u središnjem dijelu kanala i konačno implementirana 2015. – izazvala je zabrinutost morskih biologa, koji strahuju da će to povećati dolazak vrsta iz Crvenog mora na Mediteran.[69]

Egzotične vrste iz Indo-Pacifika i unesene u Mediteran preko kanala od 1880-ih postale su značajna komponenta mediteranskog ekosistema. Oni već utiču na njegovu ekologiju, ugrožavajući neke lokalne i endemske vrste. Od probijanja kanala, u Mediteranu je zabilježeno preko hiljadu vrsta iz Crvenog mora – planktona, morskih algi, beskičmenjaka, riba, a jasno je da će uslijediti i mnoge druge. Rezultirajuća promjena u bioraznolikosti je bez presedana u ljudskom sjećanju i ubrzava se: dugoročna međuslivska anketa koju je angažovala Mediteranska naučna komisija nedavno je dokumentirala da je u prvih dvadeset godina ovog stoljeća više egzotičnih vrsta riba iz Indijskog okeana stiglo Mediterana nego tokom cijelog 20. stoljeća.[70]

Historijski gledano, izgradnji kanala prethodilo je presjecanje malog slatkovodnog kanala nazvanog Sweet Water Canal od delte Nila duž Wadi Tumilat do budućeg kanala, sa južnim ogrankom do Suesa i sjevernim do Port Saida. Završeni 1863, ogranci su doveli svježu vodu u prethodno sušno područje, u početku za izgradnju kanala, a kasnije su omogućili rast poljoprivrede i naselja uz kanal.[71] Međutim, izgradnja Asuanske visoke brane preko Nila, koja je počela sa radom 1968, znatno je smanjila dotok slatke vode i smanjila sav prirodni mulj bogat nutrijentima koji ulazi u istočni Mediteran u delti Nila.

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Dodatna literatura

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  • Bogaars, George. "The Effect of the Opening of the Suez Canal on the Trade and Development of Singapore." Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 28.1 (1955): 99-143. online
  • Bonin, Hubert. History of the Suez Canal Company 1858-2008 (Librairie Droz, 2010).
  • Britannica (2007) "Suez Canal", in: The new Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., 28, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, ISBN 1-59339-292-3
  • Bulfin, Ailise. "The Fiction of Gothic Egypt and British Imperial Paranoia: The Curse of the Suez Canal." English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920 54.4 (2011): 411-443. online[trajno mrtav link]
  • Burchell, S.C. Getting to Know The Suez Canal (1971), for middle schools online
  • Farnie, D.A. East and West of Suez: Suez Canal in History, 1854–1956 (1969), a standard scholarly history; 870 pp
  • Fletcher, Max E. "The Suez Canal and world shipping, 1869-1914." Journal of Economic History 18.4 (1958): 556-573.
  • Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). "A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea", in: Leppäkoski, E., Gollasch, S. and Olenin, S. (eds), Invasive aquatic species of Europe : distribution, impacts, and management, Dordrecht; Boston : Kluwer Academic, ISBN 1-4020-0837-6, pp. 325–336
  • Garrison, Ervan G. (1999) A history of engineering and technology : artful methods, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, Fla.; London : CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-9810-X
  • Hallberg, Charles W. The Suez Canal: Its History and Diplomatic Importance (1931), a standard scholarly history; 440 pp; online
  • Huber, Valeska. "Connecting colonial seas: the 'international colonisation' of Port Said and the Suez Canal during and after the First World War." European Review of History: Revue europeenne d'histoire 19.1 (2012): 141-161. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13507486.2012.643612
  • Karabell, Zachary (2003) Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal, Knopf, ISBN 978-0-375-40883-0 online
  • Obieta, Joseph A. The international status of the Suez canal (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012).
  • Pudney, John. Suez; De Lesseps' Canal (Praeger, 1969).
  • Rathbone, William (1882). Great Britain and the Suez Canal . London: Chapman and Hall, Limited.
  • Sanford, Eva Matthews (1938) The Mediterranean world in ancient times, Ronald series in history, New York : The Ronald Press Company, 618 p.
  • Wilson, Arnold T. (1939). The Suez Canal. Its Past, Present, and Future (2nd izd.). London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  • Wilson, Arnold. "The Suez Canal." International Affairs 18#3, (1939), pp. 380–95. online

Historiografija

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  • Carminati, Lucia. "Suez: A hollow canal in need of peopling. Currents and stoppages in the historiography, 1859–1956." History Compass 19.5 (2021): 1-14. online[trajno mrtav link]
  • Curli, Barbara. "Italy and the Suez Canal: Historical and Historiographical Passages from a Euro-Mediterranean Perspective." in Italy and the Suez Canal, from the Mid-nineteenth Century to the Cold War: A Mediterranean History (Springer International Publishing, 2022) pp. 1–26.
  • Oster, Uwe (2006) Le fabuleux destin des inventions : le canal de Suez, TV documentary produced by ZDF and directed by Axel Engstfeld (Germany)
  • Searight, S. "A dismal but Profitable Ditch: The Suez Canal Then and now" Asian Affairs, (2016) 47, 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2015.1129870 online]

Vanjski linkovi

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